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Pasado (tiempo)
Saltar a:navegacin,bsqueda
Para otros usos de este trmino, vasePasado (desambiguacin).
Generalmente se utiliza el trmino pasado para referirse al conjunto de sucesos que ya han
tenido lugar.
Enfsicase denomina pasado (causal) de unsucesoA, alconjuntode todos los puntos delespacio-tiempoque puedan influir en lo que ocurre en A.
Enmecnica clsicael pasado de un suceso no depende de su posicin espacial siendo
funcin nicamente de su posicin en eltiempo, por lo que el pasado de un suceso Acoincide con el de todos los sucesos que comparten la misma coordenada temporal con A.
Enrelatividad especialel pasado de un suceso A es equivalente a todos los puntos delespacio-tiempo desde los que podra venir un rayo deluzque pase por el punto A. En un
diagrama de espacio-tiempo el pasado de un suceso se ve como unconopor lo que tambin
se le denominacono de luzpasado. Cada uno de los sucesos pertenecientes al cono de luzpasado del punto A, ocurre antes que A para todos los observadores.
El pasado es tambin objeto de estudio por muchas otras ciencias a parte de la fsica tales
como lahistoria, elpsicoanlisis, laarqueologa,arqueoastronoma,filologa,geologa,
paleontologa,paleobotnica,paleoclimatologao lacosmologa.
The past tense(abbreviatedPST) is agrammatical tensethat places an action or situation
in the past of the current moment (in anabsolute tensesystem), or prior to some specifiedtime that may be in the speaker's past, present, or future (in arelative tensesystem).[1]
Notall languages mark verbs for the past tense (Mandarin Chinese, for example, does not); in
some languages, the grammatical expression of past tense is combined with the expression
ofmoodand/oraspect(seetenseaspectmood). Some languages that mark for past tensedo so byinflectingthe verb, while others do so by usingauxiliary verbs(and some do
both).
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-headhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-headhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-headhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio-tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio-tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio-tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-head 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Contents
[hide]
1 European languageso 1.1 Germanic languages
1.1.1 English 1.1.2 German 1.1.3 Dutch
o 1.2 Non-Germanic Indo-European languages 1.2.1 French
2 African languages 3 Asian languages 4 The Americas 5 New Guinea 6 Creole languages
o 6.1 Belizean Creoleo 6.2 Singaporean English Creoleo 6.3 Hawaiian Creole Englisho 6.4 Haitian Creole
7 References 8 External links
[edit] European languages
[edit] Germanic languages
The European continent is heavily dominated byIndo-European languages, all of whichhave a past tense. In some cases the tense is formedinflectionallyas in English see/saw or
walk/walkedand as in theFrenchimperfectform, and sometimes it is formed
periphrastically, as in the Frenchpass composform. Further, all of the non-Indo-
European languages in Europe, such asBasque,Hungarian, andFinnish, also have a pasttense.
[edit]English
In English, the so-calledsimple pastform, sometimes called thepreterite, is a true tense inthat its use always places the action in the past.
[1]Thepresent perfectform is anaspectthat
relates the past to the present; it specifies a present state that results from past action, and assuch it is a form of present tense even though it makes reference to past action.
[2]It can be
altered to move the time that the state is experienced to the past. The other basic form ofEnglish verbs is theprogressive aspectform, which shows ongoing action; this too can be
altered to place the action in the past. English also has two forms, one of them unique to the
past, that indicate pasthabitualaction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Dutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Dutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Non-Germanic_Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Non-Germanic_Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#African_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#African_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Asian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Asian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#The_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#The_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Creole_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Creole_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Belizean_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Belizean_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Singaporean_English_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Singaporean_English_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Haitian_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Haitian_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Haitian_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Singaporean_English_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Belizean_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Creole_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#The_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Asian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#African_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Non-Germanic_Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Dutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense 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The simple past is formed forregular verbsby adding -dor edto the root of a word.Examples: He walked to the store, or They danced all night. A negation is produced by
adding did notand putting the verb in its infinitive form. Example: He did not walk to the
store. Question sentences are started with didas in Did he walk to the store?The simple
past is used for describing acts that have already been concluded, regardless of whether
they took placehabituallyor are viewed as asingle occurrence seen as a unit(but not if
they are viewed as having occurred continuously). It is commonly used in storytelling.
The past progressive is formed by using a simple past form ofto be (was or were) and themain verbspresent participle:He was going to church. This form indicates that an action
was continuously ongoing. By inserting notbefore the main verb a negation is achieved.
Example: He was not going to church. A question is formed by fronting the simple past
form ofto be as in Was he going?.
The past habitual can be formed in one of two ways. One construction is formed by usedto plus the bare form of the main verb (or, technically and equivalently, by usedplus the
to-infinitiveof the main verb). With an action verb it indicates that something occurred
repetitively, as in I used to go there, while with astative verbit indicates that a state wascontinuously in effect, as in I used to belong to that club. The used to form can be used
whether or not the specific time frame of the action is specified (I used to go there; I used
to go there every Friday in June). The negation of this form is exemplified by I used not to
go there, although in informal usage I didn't use to go there is frequently heard. The
interrogative form Used you to go there?is rare; the informal alternative Did you use to go
there?is sometimes heard.
The other past habitual form uses theauxiliary verbwould(which has other uses as well).
For example, Last June I would go there dailyconveys repetitive action. When this form is
used, it must be accompanied by an explicit time frame (so for example I would go there.
does not occur unless the time frame has already been specified). This form is negated as
in Last June I would not go there daily, and it is made interrogative as in Last June, would
you go there daily?.
The past perfect is formed by combining the simple past form ofto have with the pastparticiple form of the main verb: We had shouted. This form conveys that an action
occurred before a specified time in the past, so it is actually a "past of the past" tense. A
negation is achieved by including notafter had: You had not spoken. Questions in past
perfect always start with had: Had he laughed?
The past perfect progressive is formed by had(the simple past ofto have), been (the pastparticiple ofto be) and the present participle of the main verb: You had been waiting. This
form describes action which happened in continuous fashion prior to some time in the
past. For negation, notis included before been: I had not been waiting. A question
sentence is formed by starting with had: Had she been waiting?If emphasis is put on the
duration of an action that continued to the reference time in the past, since andforare
signal words for the past perfect progressive: We had been waiting at the airport since the
9 P.M. flight; We had been waiting there for three hours.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To-infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To-infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To-infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verb -
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[edit]German
Germanuses two forms for the past tense.
The preterite (Prteritum) (called the "imperfect" in older grammar books, but this, aborrowing from Latin terminology, ill describes it.)
The perfect (Perfekt)In SouthGermany,AustriaandSwitzerland, the preterite is mostly used solely in writing,for example in stories. Use in speech is regarded as snobbish and thus very uncommon.
South German dialects, such as the Bavarian dialect, as well asYiddish, and Swiss German
have no preterite, but only perfect constructs.
In certain regions, a few specific verbs are used in the preterite, for instance the modal
verbs and the verbs haben (have) and sein (be).
Es gab einmal ein kleines Mdchen, das Rotkppchen hie. (There was once a small girlwho was calledLittle Red Riding Hood.)
In speech and informal writing, the Perfektis used (e.g., Ich habe dies und das gesagt. (Isaid this and that)).
However, in the colloquial language of North Germany, there is still a very importantdifference between the preterite and theperfect, and both tenses are consequently very
common. The preterite is used for past actions when the focus is on the action, whilst the
present perfect is used for past actions when the focus is on the present state of the subjectas a result of a previous action. This is somewhat similar to the English usage of the
preterite and the present perfect.
Preterite: "Heute frh kam mein Freund." (my friend came early in the morning, and he isbeing talked about strictly in the past)
Perfect: "Heute frh istmein Freund gekommen." (my friend came early in the morning,but he is being talked about in the present)
[edit]Dutch
Dutchalso has 2 main past tenses:
onvoltooid verleden tijd, which matches the English simple past and the German preterite,for example: Gisteren was ik daar("I was there yesterday").
voltooid tegenwoordige tijd, a present tense with the meaning of perfect. This form ismade by combining a form ofzijn ("to be") or hebben ("to have") with the notional verb,
for example: Gisteren ben ik daargeweest. This also means "I was there yesterday", but
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just as it is the case for English constructions with the present perfect simple, this kind of
formulation puts more emphasis on the "being finished"-aspect.
[edit] Non-Germanic Indo-European languages
In non-GermanicIndo-European languages, past marking is typically combined with adistinction betweenperfectiveandimperfectiveaspect, with the former reserved for singlecompleted actions in the past.Frenchfor instance, has an imperfect tense form similar to
that of German but used only for past habitual or past progressive contexts like "I used
to..." or "I was doing...". Similar patterns extend across most languages of the Indo-European family right through to theIndic languages.
Unlike other Indo-European languages, inSlavic languagestense is independent ofaspect,withimperfectiveandperfectiveaspects being indicated instead by means of prefixes, stem
changes, orsuppletion. In manyWest SlavicandEast Slaviclanguages, theearly Slavic
past tenses have largely merged into a single past tense. In both West and East Slavic, verbs
in the past tense are conjugated forgender(masculine, feminine, neuter) andnumber(singular, plural).
[edit]French
Frenchhas numerous forms of the past tense including but not limited to:
Past perfective (pass compos) e.g.J'ai mang (I ate, using the form but not the meaningofI have eaten)
Past imperfective (imparfait) e.g.Je mangeais (I was eating) Past historic or Simple past (pass simple) e.g.Je mangeai(I ate) (literary only) Pluperfect (Plus que parfait) e.g.J'avais mang (I had eaten [before another event in the
past])
Recent past (pass recent) e.g.Je viens de manger(I just ate)[edit] African languages
Whilst inSemitic languagestripartite non-past/past imperfective/past perfective systems
similar to those of most Indo-European languages are found, in the rest of Africa pasttenses have very different forms from those found in European languages.Berber
languageshave only the perfective/imperfective distinction and lack a past imperfect.
Many non-BantuNigerCongo languagesof West Africa do not mark past tense at all but
instead have a form ofperfectderived from a word meaning "to finish". Others, such asEwe, distinguish only betweenfutureandnon-future.
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In complete contrast,Bantu languagessuch asZuluhave not only a past tense, but also a
less remoteproximal tense which is used for very recent past events and is never
interchangeable with the ordinary past form. These languages also differ substantially fromEuropean languages in coding tense withprefixesinstead of such suffixes as English -ed.
Other, smaller language families of Africa follow quite regional patterns. Thus theSudaniclanguagesof East Africa and adjacent Afro-Asiatic families are part of the same area with
inflectional past-marking that extends into Europe, whereas more westerly Nilo-Saharanlanguages often do not have past tense.
[edit] Asian languages
Past tenses are found in a variety of Asian languages. These include the Indo-EuropeanlanguagesRussianin North Asia andPersian,Tajik,Urdu, andHindiin Southwest and
South Asia; theTurkic languagesTurkish,Turkmen,Kazakh, andUyghurof Southwest
and Central Asia;Arabicin Southwest Asia;Japanese; theDravidian languagesof India;
theUralic languagesof Russia;Mongolic; andKorean. Languages inEast AsiaandSoutheast Asiatypically do not distinguish tense; inMandarin Chinese, for example, the
particlele when used immediately after a verb instead indicatesperfective aspect.
In parts of islands in Southeast Asia, even less distinction is made, for instance in
Indonesianand some otherAustronesian languages. Past tenses, do, however, exist in most
Oceanic languages.
[edit] The Americas
AmongNative American languagesthere is a split between complete absence of past
marking (especially common in Mesoamerica and the Pacific Northwest) and very complextense marking with numerous specialised remoteness distinctions, as found for instance in
Athabaskan languagesand a few languages of the Amazon Basin. Some of these tenses canhave specialised mythological significance and uses.
A number of Native American languages like Northern Paiute stand in contrast to European
notions of tense because they always userelative tense, which means time relative to a
reference point that may not coincide with the time an utterance is made.
[edit] New Guinea
Papuan languagesof New Guinea almost always have remoteness distinctions in the past
tense (though none are as elaborate as some native American languages), whilst indigenousAustralian languagesusually have a single past tense without remoteness distinctions.
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_tense&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athabaskan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyghur_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmen_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajik_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit§ion=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu_languages 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[edit] Creole languages
Creole languagestend to make tense marking optional, and when tense is marked invariantpre-verbal markers are used.[3]
[edit] Belizean Creole
InBelizean Creole, past tense marking is optional and is rarely used if a semantic temporalmarker such asyestudeh "yesterday" is present.
[edit] Singaporean English Creole
Singaporean English Creole (Singlish) optionally marks the past tense, most often in
irregular verbs (e.g., go went) and regular verbs like acceptwhich require an extrasyllable for the past tense suffix -ed.
[edit] Hawaiian Creole English
Hawaiian Creole English[4]
optionally marks the past tense with the invariant pre-verbal
marker wen or bin (especially older speakers) or haed(especially on the island Kauai). (Ai
wen si om "I saw him";Ai bin klin ap mai ples for da halade "I cleaned up my place for the
holiday";De haed plei BYU laes wik"They played BYU last week"). The past habitual
marker isyustu (Yo mada yustu tink so "Your mother used to think so").
Linguistic prescription
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Linguistic anthropology
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Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics
Second-language acquisition
Related articles
History of linguistics Linguistic prescription
List of linguists List of unsolved problems in linguistics
Portal
v t e
Inlinguistics,prescription denotes normative practices on such aspects of language use as
spelling,grammar,pronunciation, andsyntax. It includes judgments on what usages are
sociallyproper andpolitically correct. Its aims may be to establish astandard language, to
teach what is perceived within a particular society to be correct forms of language, or to
advise on effective communication. Ifusagepreferences are conservative, prescriptionmight (appear to) be resistant tolanguage change; if the usage preferences are radical,
prescription may produceneologisms.[1][page needed]
Prescriptive approaches to language, concerned with how the prescriptivist recommends
language should be used, are often contrasted with the alternative approach ofdescriptivelinguistics, which observes and records how language actually is used.[2]The basis of
linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field studies, both of which are descriptive
activities; but description includes each researchers observations of his or her own
language usage. Despite apparent opposition, prescription and description can inform eachother,[1][page needed] since comprehensive descriptive accounts must take into account speaker
attitudes, while some understanding of how language is actually used is necessary forprescription to be effective.
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Contents
[hide]
1 Aims 2 Authority 3 Origins 4 Sources 5 Problems 6 Prescription and description 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Additional resources
[edit] Aims
The main aims of linguistic prescription are to specify standard language forms eithergenerally (what isStandard English?) or for specific purposes (whatstyleandregisterisappropriate in, for example, alegal brief?) and to formulate these in such a way as to make
them easily taught or learned.[3]Prescription can apply to most aspects of language:
spelling, grammar, semantics, pronunciation and register. Most people would agree that in
all of these areas it is meaningful to describe some usages as, at least, inappropriate inparticular contexts. One main aim of prescription is to draw workable guidelines for
language users seeking advice in such matters.
Standardized languages are useful for interregional communication: speakers of divergentdialectsmay understand astandard languageused inbroadcastingmore readily than they
would understand each other's dialects. It can be argued that such alingua franca, if needed,will evolve by itself, but the desire to formulate and define it is very widespread in most
parts of the world. Writers or communicators who wish to use words clearly, powerfully, or
effectively often use prescriptive rules, believing that these may make theircommunications more widely understood and unambiguous.
A complementary aim of linguistic prescription may be the imposition of a politicalideology. During the second half of the 20th century, politically motivated linguistic
prescription recommended by variousadvocacy groupshad considerable influence on
language use in the context ofpolitical correctness, imposing special rules foranti-sexist,anti-racistor generically anti-discriminatorylanguage (e.g. "people-first language" asadvocated by disability rights organizations).George OrwellinPolitics and the English
Language(1946) criticized the use of euphemisms and convoluted phrasing as a means of
hiding insincerity. Orwell's fictional "Newspeak" (1949) is a parody of ideologically
motivated linguistic prescriptivism.
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[edit] Authority
Prescriptive Authority: The Royal Spanish Academy, Madrid.
Prescription presupposes an authority whose judgment may be followed by other membersof a speech community. Such an authority may be a prominent writer or educator such asHenry Fowler, whoseEnglish Usagedefined the standard forBritish Englishfor much of
the 20th century.[4]
TheDudengrammar (first edition 1880) has a similar status for
German. Although dictionary makers often see their work as purely descriptive, theirdictionaries are widely used as prescriptive authorities by the community at large. Popular
books such asLynne Truss'sEats, Shoots & Leaves, which argues for stricter adherence to
prescriptive punctuation rules, have phases of fashion and are authoritative to the extent
that they attract a significant following.
In some language communities, linguistic prescription is regulated formally. TheAcadmiefranaisein Paris is an example of a national body whose recommendations are widely
respected though not legally enforceable. InGermanyand theNetherlands, recent[which?]
spelling reforms were devised by teams of linguists commissioned by the government and
were then implemented by statute. Some were met with significant political dissent, like inthe case of theGerman orthography reform of 1996.
Other kinds of authorities exist in specific settings, such as publishers laying down ahousestylewhich, for example, may either prescribe or proscribe particular spellings or
grammatical forms, such asserial commas.
Examples of prescriptive bodies include:
TheAcadmie franaiseis the national language-governing academic body whoserecommendations, though legally unenforceable, are respected for maintaining standard
French.
The Canadian province ofQubec, where French is perceived to be particularly threatenedby the incursion of English, has its ownOffice qubcois de la langue franaise.
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The German-speaking nations (Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland) establishednational, normative spelling usages for their respective varieties of the language by statute
with theGerman orthography reform of 1996. This reform has remained so controversial
that in aplebisciteinSchleswig Holsteinin 1998, the vast majority of voters decided that
the reform was not to be executed in the Federal State; however the Schleswig-Holstein
parliament overruled this decision in 1999. Many major German newspapers chose to
implement the reform only in part (e.g.Axel Springer AG,Der Spiegel) or not at all, ending
a period where unified German spelling (German:Rechtschreibung, verbatim: right
[=correct] writing), although officially only mandatory in government and educational use,
was the de facto standard in German spelling.
In the Netherlands, standardized spelling norms were compulsory for Dutch governmentpublications yet popular and mass communications media language applied an adapted
spelling reform, seeWordlist of the Dutch languageand theWhite Booklet.
During theera of the Soviet UniontheUnion of Soviet Writerspoliced theRussianlanguagewith prescriptive linguistics to establish astandardized Russian language.
The standard ofSpanishis maintained in 21 countries by theReal Academia Espaolainaffiliation with theAssociation of Spanish Language Academies.
TheAlbanianstandard language (theToskvariety) is regulated by the Social Sciences andAlbanological Section of theAcademy of Sciences of Albania.
The regulating body for standardRomanianis theRomanian Academy; its resolutions andrecommendations are acknowledged by the Romanian state and other entities where
Romanian is officially recognised (e.g., theEuropean UnionandVojvodina). In theRepublic
of Moldova, the only country besides Romania where Romanian is the official language of
the state, the language is officially called "Moldovan" and it is regulated by theAcademyof Sciences of Moldova, through its Institute of Linguistics.
[edit] Origins
Historically, linguistic prescriptivism originates in astandard languagewhen a society
establishessocial stratificationand a socio-economichierarchy. The spoken and written
language usages of theauthorities(state, military, church) are preserved as the standardlanguage to emulate for social success; seesocial class. To distinguish itself from
contemporarycolloquial language, standard language usage includesarchaismsand
honorificcolours. Like-wise, thestyleof language used inritualalso differs from quotidian
speech.[5]Specialceremonial languagesknown only to a select few spiritual leaders withina community are found throughout the world.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_orthography_reform_of_1996http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_orthography_reform_of_1996http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_orthography_reform_of_1996http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebiscitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebiscitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebiscitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleswig_Holsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleswig_Holsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleswig_Holsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Springer_AGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Springer_AGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Springer_AGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Spiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Spiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Spiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordlist_of_the_Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordlist_of_the_Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordlist_of_the_Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Booklethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Booklethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Booklethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Writershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Writershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Writershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Russian#Standard_Russianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Russian#Standard_Russianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Russian#Standard_Russianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1olahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1olahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1olahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Spanish_Language_Academieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Spanish_Language_Academieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Spanish_Language_Academieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojvodinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojvodinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojvodinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_prescription&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_prescription&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_prescription&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloquial_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloquial_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloquial_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_%28literature%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_%28literature%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_%28literature%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_%28literature%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloquial_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_prescription&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojvodinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Spanish_Language_Academieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1olahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Russian#Standard_Russianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Writershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Booklethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordlist_of_the_Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Spiegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Springer_AGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleswig_Holsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebiscitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_orthography_reform_of_1996 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Standard language: Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese characters.
When a culture develops awritingsystem,orthographicrules for the consistenttranscription of linguistic outputs allows for a large number of speakers to understand
written communications with minimal difficulty. Linguists largely disregard native writingsystems, replacing the conventional symbols of the language they are researching with
phonetic transcriptions, but they nonetheless rely on some shared orthographic
representation in order to preserve semantic identities with data sets. This is most
commonly achieved by providing the conventional orthographic representation of theEnglish translation of a word alongside theIPAtranscription of the word's pronunciation
when spoken by a native speaker.
Early historical trends in literacy and alphabetization were closely tied to the influence of
various religious institutions:Western Christianitypropagated theLatin alphabet;Eastern
Orthodoxy, theGreekandCyrillicalphabets;Judaism, theHebrew alphabet;Islam, theArabic alphabet; andHinduism, theDevanagariscript;.[6]In certain traditions, strict
adherence to prescribed spellings and pronunciations was and remains of great spiritual
importance.Islamicnaming conventions and greetings are notable examples of linguisticprescription being prerequisite to spiritual righteousness. Another commonly cited example
of prescriptive language usage closely associated with social propriety is the system of
Japanese honorifics.
Standard language: Ptolemaic hieroglyphics from theTemple of Kom Ombo.
Governmentbureaucracytends toward prescriptivism as a means of enforcing functionalcontinuity. Such prescriptivism dates fromancient Egypt, where bureaucrats preserved the
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spelling of theMiddle Kingdom of Egyptinto thePtolemaic periodthrough the standard
usage ofEgyptian hieroglyphics.[7]
Most, if not all, languages with a significant number of speakers demonstrate some degree
of social codification through speaker adherence or non-adherence to prescriptive rules.
Linguistic prestigeis a central research topic withinsociolinguistics. Notions of linguisticprestige apply to different dialects of the same language and also to separate, distinct
languages in multilingual regions. Prestige level disparity often leads to the pheno