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Department of the Classics, Harvard University

Binary Phrases and the Middle Style as Social Code: "Rhetorica ad Herennium" 4.13 and 4.16Author(s): Brian A. KrostenkoSource: Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 102 (2004), pp. 237-274Published by: Department of the Classics, Harvard UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4150041 .

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BINARYPHRASESANDTHEMIDDLE STYLEAS SOCIAL CODE:

RHETORICA D HERENNIUM .13 and 4.16 *BRIAN A. KROSTENKO

I. INTRODUCTION:"GOOD"AND "BAD"MIDDLE STYLES AND THEBINARY PHRASEHE Rhetorica ad Herennium,like manyancient rhetorical trea-tises, identifies three genera dicendi or styles of speaking, the"grand" graue "weighty"),"middle"(mediocre), and "plain"(ex- oradtenuatum"reduced") 4.11-16).l The Authorgives shortexamples of

each and, more interesting in many ways, failed versions of each,respectivelythe "bloated" sufflatum),"slack"(dissolutum)or "waver-ing" (fluctuans), and "thin"(exile), styles produced by warping thegood versions.2The particularlaws of the "bloated" sufflatum)andthe"thin"(exile) styles have long been clear: both push too hard for theirparticularcardinalvirtues,grandnessand plainness, becoming therebypoetic andabsurd,or puerileandsolecistic.3*Versions of this paperwere presentedat the 2001 convention of the American Philo-logical Association and at the Universityof NorthCarolinaat Chapel Hill. I am gratefulfor the attentivereceptionsof those astuteaudiences,as also for the interestand helpfulsuggestionsof HSCP's anonymousreferee. The completionof this work was generouslysupported by the National Endowmentfor the Humanitiesthrougha fellowship at theNational Humanities Center.To the Endowmentand to the staff of the N.H.C. I expressmy sinceregratitude.I Cf. George Kennedy,The Art of Persuasion in Classical Greece (Princeton 1963)278 ff.; Gualtiero Calboli, Cornifici "Rhetorica ad Herennium" (Bologna 1969)287-288.2While the Author has doubtless producedthe warpedversions himself, whetherthe"good"versions are excerptsfrom genuine speeches or the Author'sown productionsisnotclear.On the issue of the Greek models for theexamples offigurae in the fourthbook,see Calboli (above, n. 1)46-50.

3Forthe flaws of the "bloated" tyle passage, see Calboli (above, n. 1) 295-296 n. 48withreff.;for the flaws of the "thin" tyle, ibid. 297-298 n. 52 with reff.


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238 BrianA. KrostenkoBy contrast, the flaws of the "slack" (dissolutum)or "wavering"

(fluctuans)style, which is the faultyversion of the "middle" mediocre)style, have not been fully identified.Partlythis may be because the suc-cesses of the "good"middle style passage are so obvious: it featuresmany of the figures of exornatio which the Author recommends,andwhich the "slack"passage lacks. More important, n my view, is a tech-nique that the Author does not specifically recommend,but which issignally present in the "good"middle style passage and mishandled inthe "bad"middlestyle passage.It is a techniquethatis important n themiddle style models from which this "good" middle style passage islikely to have drawn inspiration,and hinted at by the normative lan-guage by which the Author describes his middle style passages:namely,the use of binaryphrases(a structure will illustrateby exam-ple presently). The binary phrase (in our passage, once a ternaryphrase) can be analyzed from two points of view. Examined for itsfunctions in context, the binary phrase proves to be a frame in whichthe speakercan put on displayhis surecontrolover the categoriesusedto analyzesocial andpolitical life andtherebydeclarehis fitness to pro-nounce on the pointat issue. The utilityof the binaryphraseto performthis function, in turn,is best understoodby examining its evolution inthe interactionbetweendevelopingRoman sensibilities about Latin andthe panoplyof Greek rhetoricalmodels that the Romanswere assimilat-ing. In short,I will bothanalyzethe effects of the use of binaryphrasesin our passage and speculateaboutthe origins of that rhetoricaldevice.We must begin by reviewing the two passages in question. Theobject of the passages is to insinuatethatcertainallies did not revolt oftheir own free will but with the collusion of parties at Rome. Thisalleged fifth column would have been liable to prosecutionunderthelex Varia de maiestate, and the Author's "good" passage is, or isintendedto represent,a speech delivered at the trial.4Both fragmentsmake the same argument, hatmilitaryaction ought to be preceded by

4Cf. E. Gabba, "Le origini della guerrasociale e la vita politica romanadopo 1' 89A.C.," Athenaeum, n.s., 32 (1954) 321; HarryCaplan, [Cicero] ad C. Herennium:DeRationeDicendi Cambridge,MA1968)260-261 notec; Calboliabove,n. 1)292.Thelex Variade maiestate, passed by the tribuneQ. VariusHybrida n 90 BC (cf. App. BC1.37, Cic. Brut.89, V. Max. 8.6.4), was, according o Asconius, aimedat "thoseby whoseassistance rcounselallies tookuparmsagainsthe Roman eople"deiis quorumpeconsilioue socii contrapopulumRomanumarma sumpsissent,Ascon. Scau: 19, p. 22, 7Clark).


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BinaryPhrasesand the MiddleStyleas Social Code 239careful self-assessment, and that thereforemilitaryaction by a patentlyweakerparty againsta strongercan only have been undertaken f therewas hope of assistancefromsome otherquarter.The "bad"middle stylepassage statesthe pointdirectly:

socii nostri cum belligerarenobiscum uellent, profecto ratiocinatiessent etiamatqueetiam,quid possint facere, si quidemsua spontefacerent et non haberenthinc adiutoresmultos, malos homines etaudaces. solent enim diu cogitareomnes, qui magna negotiauoluntagere. (Rhet.Her 4.16)Ourallies, when they wanted to do battle with us, would certainlyhave calculated their abilities again and again-if, that is, theywere doing it of their own accord and did not have many helpersfrom here,wickedanddaringmen. Foreveryone who wantsto per-form greattasks is accustomed to thinkfor a long time.

The "good"middle style passage makes the same point at consider-ably greater ength. Especially notablearethe amplificationsby way ofdoublets, pairs, and parallelisms,both complementaryand contrastive:the allies are supposedto supportRoman authorityby their "characterand hardwork" uirtus et industria);they would have come to battle"betterequipped and better prepared" instructioreset apparatiores);subject peoples consented to Roman rule "partlyundercompulsionandpartly by consent" (partim ui partim uoluntate). I will refer to suchstructures, he sort of amplificationperfectly familiar to all readersofCicero and of epideictic pieces generally,as "binaryphrases,"which Iwill define in furtherdetail below. I have indicatedthem here in bold-face or boldfaceditalics wherenecessary:

quibuscumbellum gerimus, iudices, uidetis: cum sociis, qui pronobis (la) pugnare et imperiumnostrumnobiscumsimul (2a) uir-tute et (2b) industria (lb) conseruare soliti sunt. ii cum (3a) se et(3b I) opes suas et (3b2) copiam necessario (4a) norunt, tum ueronihilominus propter(5a) propinquitatem et omnium rerum (5b)societatem, quid omnibus rebus populus Romanus posset, (4b)scire et existimare poterant. i, cum deliberassentnobiscum bellumgerere, quaeso,quaeres erat,quafreti bellumsuscipereconarentur,cum multo maximam partem sociorum in officio manere intel-legerent?cum sibi non (6a) multitudinem militum, non (6b) ido-


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BinaryPhrases and theMiddleStyleas Social Code 241with their neighborsand they thought the outcome of the wholestrugglerestedon a single battle,they would have come betterpre-paredand betterequipped-say nothingof trying, with such slen-der forces, to transferto themselves rule over the world, a rule towhich all nations,kings, and peoples have assented, partly undercompulsion,partly by consent, afterbeing defeated by the Romanpeople at armsor in generosity.Someone will ask: But didn't theFregellanimake an attempt[at rebellion] of their own free will?6Then our allies ought to have been thatmuch less willing to makean attempt,since they saw how the Fregellanicame out of it. Inex-periencedparties,who are incapableof looking into previoushis-tory for parallels to a particularsituation, are very easily led tomalfeasance by their lack of foresight: whereas those who knowwhathas happenedto others areeasily able to take forethought ortheirown affairsfrom the results thatothers experienced. So theytook up arms with no motivationand with no expectation? Whocan believe that-that anyonesuffered from such stupiditythat hewould makean attempton thepowerof the Romanpeople withoutany forces at his disposal?Theremust have been something. Whatelse can it be otherthan what I've been saying?

Accordingto the Author,the firstpassage is "slack,that is to say, lack-ing sinews andjoints-wavering, so to speak, because it wandershereand there and cannot deliver its point in a confidentand manly fash-ion.... Speech of this kind cannothold a hearer'sattention; t trails offcompletely and fails to lay hold of and embraceany idea with finishedexpressions"(dissolutum,quodest sine neruiset articulis; ut hoc modoappellem 'fluctuans'eo quodfluctuathuc et illuc nec potest con irmateneque uiriliter sese expedire.... non potest huiusmodi sermo tenereadtentumauditorem;diffluitenimtotusneque quicquamconprehendensperfectis uerbisamplectitur,4.16). Whatexactly does the Author meanby that judgment? What is "slack" and "irresolute"about a passagethat, had it been preservedamong the fragmentsof Cato, might well

6 Fregellae, founded as a colony in the Liris valley in 328 B.c., revoltedagainst theRomanconfederation n 125 B.C.,ikely in the wake of the failureof the rogatioFulviadecivitate sociis danda, and was crushedby the consul L. Opimius (Liv. Per 60, Vel. Pat.2.6.4). Fregellae is also used as an example to illustratefigures at Rhet. Her 4.22 and4.37.


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242 BrianA. Krostenkohave been considered vigorous and direct? What is "decisive" and"manly"abouta passagethat,by comparison, ooks "padded"?

II. EXORNATIOThe firstpartof the answer,over which I will not linger, is the obvi-ous one: that, by the early first century B.C.,Roman sensibilities haddeveloped so as to requirespeakersto employ the decorationssystem-atized in Hellenistic rhetoric,so that now only such elaboratedspeechseemed possessed of itself.7 The whole point of the Rhetorica adHerennium is to present the "techniquesof dignifying speech" andenable the student "to have weight and beauty and attractiveness in[his] speech, enabling[him]to speakas a trueorator,andkeeping [him]from deliveringa bare and undistinguished dea in ordinary anguage"

(4.69).8 The passage in the genus mediocre displays many of the tech-niqueswhich the Authorsuggests. I summarizesome of them here:Some Techniques of Exornatio in Rhet. Her 4.13

repetitio(4.19): Anaphoranon multitudinemmilitum, non idoneos imperatores, non pecu-niampublicam"nota largenumberof soldiers,not suitablecommanders,notpub-lic funds"nullaigiturre inducti,nullaspe freti"influencedby no thing, relyingon no hope"

subiectio (4.33): The suggestionof a replyto anopponentor to oneselfquaeretaliquis:quid?Fregellaninon sua sponteconati sunt?et seq.

7Accordingo Cicero(Brut.82), the first Roman o use digressionsegre[ssio]apropositoornandicausa),patheticappeals miserationes),ndcommonplacescom-munesoci)was Ser.SulpiciusGalba,whowasconsuln 144B.C..8 omnes rationeshonestandaestudiosecollegimus locutionis: in quibus,Herenni,

si te diligentiusxercueris,t grauitatemt dignitatemt suauitatem abere n dicundopoteris, ut oratorie plane loquaris, ne nuda atque inornata inuentio uulgari sermoneefferatur.


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BinaryPhrases ndtheMiddle tyleas SocialCode 243"Someone will ask: But didn't the Fregellanimake an attempt[atrebellion]of their own free will?"

ratiocinatio(4.23): Questioningaddressed o oneselfquaeso,quaeres erat..."Whatwas it, I ask ..."

contrarium 4.25): Argumentafortiori9si cum finitumis... bellum gererent .. tamen ... instructiores tapparatioresuenirent,nedum illi imperiumorbis terrae ... ad setransferre... conarentur."If they had been waging war with theirneighbors... they wouldstill have arrivedbetterequippedand betterprepared-say nothingof tryingto transfer o themselves ruleover the world."

articulus(4.26): A shortclausulaloomnes gentes regesnationes"allnations,kings, [and]peoples"

interrogatio(4.22): A question summingup the resultsof the previousargumentquis hoc credet, tantam amentiam quemquam tenuisse, utimperiumpopuliRomanitemptareauderetnullis copiis fretus?"Who can believe that-that anyone suffered from such stupiditythat he would make an attempton the powerof the Romanpeoplewithoutanyforces athis disposal?"

9Oneof the Author'sexamplesis quosex collibusdeiecimus,cum his in campometu-imusdimicare?"Do we fear to fighton the flat [opponents]whom we've drivendown outof the hills?" (4.25, cf. Cic. de Or 3.207, Quint.9.3.90)."'Articulus rendersic6KgLacf. Calboli 335), which refers to a unit smaller than acolon (Demet. Eloc. 9); incisumis anotherrendering e.g., Cic. Orat.211, Quint.9.4.22).The two examples provided by the Rhet.Her.have asyndeticsets (acrimoniaunce uoltu perterruisti; inimicos inuidia iniuriis potentia perfidia sustulisti); theAuthorapparently aw the effect of an articulusespecially well illustratedby such struc-tures.


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244 BrianA.Krostenkosententia(4.24): MoralreflectionI'

nam rerumimperiti... facillime deducuntur n fraudem:at ii, quisciunt ... facile ... suis rationibuspossuntprouidere."Inexperiencedparties are very easily lead to malfeasance: butthose who know ... are easily able to take forethoughtfor theirown affairs."

The overall tack of the argument,which suggests that collaboration isthe only possible cause for the allies' revolt,may be seen as a versionof conlatio, a form of argument n which one arguesthat "no one elsecould have accomplishedthe deed except for one's adversary" aliumneminempotuisse perficere nisi aduersarium,Rhet. Her 2.6; cf. Cic.Inv.2.24).The passage is also rhythmicallywell structured; he clausulae ofthe passage are distinctly Ciceronian. There are four examples of theCiceronianrhythm- u - - u (bellumadministrandum,deducuntur infraudem, copiisfretus, quoddicopotest esse), one exampleof its reso-lution - u uu - u (conseruare soliti sunt), and four examples of thecommon truncation u - u (iudices uidetis, discessent uidebant,pos-suntprouidere, arma sustulerunt). In addition there is one resolutionof the dicretic - u - - u_ into - u - uu u u (existimarepoterant).These far outnumber the examples of sentence endings generallyavoided by Cicero (- vu - u in praesto (e)sse uiderent,fuisse neces-sum (e)st; - - uu u in maner(e) intellegerent); but not only are twosuch un-Ciceronianendings interrogatory,where rhythmic exigenciesmay have differed(praesto [e]sse uiderent,maner[e] intellegerent),buttwo are heroic clausulae, a type commonest in Cicero in his earliestspeeches, which are of course closest in date to the Rhet. Her12Theend of the Author'scritiqueof the "bad"middle style passage, whichdescribes it as "failing to lay hold of and embraceany idea with fin-

" Caplan (above, n. 4) cites parallels to this sentiment at Ter. Haut. 221, PubliliusSyrus60 and 177, Livy 22.39.10, and TacitusAnn. 4.33. Foran engaging analysisof theuse of sententiaein the Rhet. Her as a declarationof social identity,an analysis to whichthis articleis muchindebted,see P.Sinclair,"Sententia n the Rhetoricaad Herennium:AStudy in the Sociology of Rhetoric,"AJP 114 (1993) 561-580; on this particular enten-tia, pp. 574-576.12Orat.217 forbidsan iamb,tribrach,or dactylbeforea finalspondee(or trochee),butthis stricture s not followed in Cicero's earliestspeeches.


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246 BrianA. Krostenkoclassic form of the complementaryoppositionappears n Cato's prayerfor the suouetauriliain which Mars is asked to fend off morbos uisosinuisosque"diseasesseen and unseen"(Agr 141.2). By pairinga con-cept with its oppositeto expressa whole (the"merism"), he prayercre-ates a complementaryexpression for the totality of diseases along anaxis thatprovidesan appropriatelyhumbleposturefor postulants,whoacknowledge the sway of the god in realms beyond their own percep-tion. Complementary ets may also dependon nearsynonyms;so againfrom Cato's prayersalutemualetudinemque,which the god is asked toprovide. Valetudoand salus are both "health,"but the former in anorganicsense, "soundness n body,"and the latterin, as it were, a neg-ativesense, "safety"or "immunity rom hurt" OLD 1).The phrasethuscreates a merism for "health"-and binds the god to a broadresponsi-bility. Some of the complementary xpressionsin ourmiddlestyle pas-sage, both synonymicandcontrastive,have preciselythe same effect asCato's phrase:they create the appearanceof completeness by suggest-ing oppositionsacrossa rhetoricallyappropriate xis.Partly overlappingbut not identical are phraseswhere convention-ally juxtaposed elements, sometimes apparentlycontrastive or syn-onymic binary phrasesin origin, have acquireda single denotation orconnotation.Individuallexemes may exhibit collocational properties,changingtheir sense or reference when they are connected to other lex-emes. A particularly trong English example is "law and order";whilethe separate meanings of "law" and "order"are sensible when theyappeartogether,still the pair has a total different from the sum of itsparts:it serves as shorthand or a particularview of the ideal structureof society, especially the duties of citizens and the role of the police,and is partlyindicative,at differentpoints in Americanhistory,of atti-tudes towards the civil rightsmovementand the VietnamWar,to nameonly two examples.The binaryphrase is difficult to define more precisely. Synonymyand contrast, the central features of the internaldynamic of the firstexample he gives of a"dividedolon"srnokko'clK;eCaL`axcTev iX'; ru.viy)peI; oXUv-ayo6vrwovaitroi yuLVtroi);q yvoxvaqctxoatrldtvrtov "I have often wonderedat thosewho assembledhefestivals ndestablishedhe athletic ames"Isoc.Panegyr:);of an"opposed colon," among others, i" vrca EtV i~rEUXeoitVTxaq; KtraXEilVEtV "Willpossess duringife or will leave behindafterdeath"Isoc.Panegyr.186).Quintilian'scontrapositumor antithesis involves juxtaposedclauses, not phraseswith internalcon-trasts rcomplementsInst.Orat. .3.81).


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BinaryPhrases nd theMiddle tyleas SocialCode 247type of the phrase,are broadcategorieswith manypossible manifesta-tions; furthermore, n the case of the binaryphrase the parallelismorcontrast may be produced largely by the mechanism of the phraseitself.16The collocational force that attends the second type of phrasemay be acquiredby many kinds of lexemic pairs. Being difficult todefine, the binaryphrase,especially the firsttype, may also be difficultto detect, in thata given conjunctexpressionmay admit,butappearnotto require,analysisas a binaryphrase.It is important o note, then, thatone of the best indicatorsof the presence of a binary phrase(exclusiveof the collocationaltype) is thepresenceof others(as we will see belowin comparingCato to Gracchus):when manyexpressionsadmit of anal-ysis as binary phrases-indeed, when paired expressions occur fre-quently and consistentlyin a passage or text-that suggests the use ofsuch phrases was an intendeddecorativedevice. The "good" middlestyle passage,on any analysis, is rife withsuch phrases.

IV.PAIRINGS 1): COMPLEMENTARYETSSeveralof the complementarysets in our passage resemble the sortof obvious, highly adaptable antitheses common to much ancientrhetoricand characteristicparticularlyof the sophistic and epideicticrhetoricthatare the parentsof the middle style. Indeed,the florid mid-dle style as presentedin Cicero's Orator is described as having "madeits way to the forum fromthe fountainheadof the sophists."'7The styleof the sophists,of course, is markedby the frequentuse of antitheticalstructures,on the level both of structureand of the phrase.But in our

passage such antitheses areneverwholly artless or automatic.One suchantithesis is found midway throughthe passage in the expression par-tim ui partim uoluntate. It is quite true that the Romansubjugationofthe Mediterraneanim involvedboth conquestand capitulation,so thatsaying foreign peoples consented to Romanrule "partlyundercompul-sion andpartly by consent"is accurateenough;the contrast s found inotherdescriptionsof subjugation.'8The contrastbetweenforce and free6 So the pairingof spes "hope"and res "thing,event" etc. in our passage, analyzedinfurtherdetailbelow.

17hoc totume sophistarumontibusdefluxit nforurn,sedslretumna subtilibus(= plainstyle speakers), repulsuma grauibus(= grandstyle speakers)in ea de qua loquor me(di-ocritate consedit (Orat. 96).18 urbis partim ui alias uoluntate imperio suo adiungit (Sal. lug. 3.2), Calents


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248 BrianA. Krostenkowill is also an obvious one to make.19But its obvious quality is soft-ened when the contrast is modulated into the immediatelyfollowingcontrastof superati ... aut armisaut liberalitate"defeated .. at armsor in generosity,"a pair not found elsewhere and featuring,in liberali-tas, a keywordfor the Romansocial world.20Armaet liberalitas,to putit anotherway, is a Romanpoliticalgloss on uis et uoluntas.Anothersuch "sophistic"contrastappearsin nulla igitur re inducti,nulla spefreti arma sustulerunt?"So they took up arms with no moti-vation and with no expectation?" The wide range of res is here nar-rowedby inducti"persuaded, onvinced,induced,"andprobablyrefers,as nulla res usually does, to abstract considerations--"principles,"say21-as distinct from some "event"that had taken place; hence mytranslation"motivation."Where res thus representsthe considerationsthatmight, so to speak,havepushedthe allies, its counterpartpes rep-resents what might have pulled them. Again this is an obvious sort ofcontrast,with re as it were '-py( andspe, X6yp.But where above therewas a political gloss, here thereis verbalart: res andspes are not reallynaturalcomplements, much less opposites, but anaphoraand rhymemakethem so.

Thereis one last such sophisticdualism,or rather,an attemptto usea semantic contrastto create, successfully I think,the appearanceof a

Delphos, Thebas,Orchomenum oluntate psarumciuitatiumrecepit,nonnullasurbesperuim expugnauit,reliquasciuitates circummissislegationibusamicitiae Caesaris concil-iare studebat(Caes. BC 3.56).19The point hardly requires llustration,butcf. Cic. Ver: .3.37, Fin. 2.65, Liv. 1.3.10,

Apul. Apol. 79.20Liberalitasis the propensity o discharge,or the actualdischarge,of resources,oftenfinancial (cf. Cic. Amic. 51, Nep. Att. 11.3) or the equivalent(auxit hoc offjicium liaquoque liberalitate: nam uniuersosfrumento donauit, Nep. Art.2.6), to the benefit ofanother.Liberalitasthusoverlapspartlywithbeneficentia/beneficium,with which liberal-itas is pairedor equatedby Cicero both in theoreticalor metalinguisticformulations cf.O.ff

1.20, 1.42, 1.68 et alias, Amic. 31, Deiot. 26) and in other,non-theoreticalcontexts(Ver.2.3.94, Flac. 85, Marc. 19, Fam.5.20.4, Att. 9.1 la.3). While liberalitas is practiced,andpraisedby thatname,among partieswhose objectivestatusis equivalent,still liberal-itas is styled the act of the superiorparty,being thus numberedamongthe kingly virtues(Deiot. 26)-and so appropriaten ourpassageas one of the instruments f Romanimpe-rialism. See also J. Hellegouarc'h,Le vocabulaire latin des relationset des partis poli-tiquessous la RdpubliqueParis 1963)217-219.21Cf. forexample aciunt nulla re commotialia nisi utilitatecommuni Cic. Ver: .3. I),Spartamnulla re alia nisi auaritia esse perituram(Cic. 0ff 2.77), nulla alia re nisi hon-estate duci (Cic. Fin. 5.64).,


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BinaryPhrasesand the MiddleStyleas Social Code 249dualism. Whereas the allies' knowledge of their own resources isexpressed by nosco "be familiar with," their knowledge of Rome'scapacity is expressed by scire et existimare "knowand assess."22Thatbringsout a nice distinctionbetweencategoriesof knowledgebased ondegree of remotenessfromoneself: one mightwell be said to be "famil-iar with" or "recognize"oneself, the nearer(cf. nosce te ipsum), and"knowand assess" what belongs to others, the farther.Thatdifferenceis partly mappedby the constructionsof the verbs of knowing: nearerfamiliarityis expressedby a perfect, emphasizing acquired knowledge,and farther amiliaritynot by a finite verb butby a modalconstruction,stressing the potentialityand not the actualityof knowledge. The dis-tinction is furtherreinforcedby assigning to noruntand scire et existi-marepossunt differentkinds of predicates,an accusativeand an indi-rect question, an attested difference when the distinction between"familiarity"versus "knowledge" s stressed.23Still, nosco, especiallyin the perfect,andscio do share some terrain,andthe Authoris at painsto overbalancescio in the directionof "intellectual" r "remote"knowl-edge by adding existimare,with which scio appearsnot to be pairedelsewhere (TLL5.1525.20-34). The parallelclause structure(cum ...tumuero),each with its own complementarypairs, gives a frameto thiswhole effort to bringout a distinctionbetween, so to speak, a strengthassessment andan intelligencereport.These "sophistic"dualisms, then, are not stock tricks of epideixisout of the box, butintelligentadaptationsof a structuralpatternby wayof phonetic figures (re ... spe), forced, but suggestive, contrast (noruntvs. scire et existimare), or cultural interpretation (uis et uoluntas -arma et liberalitas). Whateverobvious quality they might still have isfurtheroffset by the complementarypairsthatdependon Roman uocespropriae. Here the form of the binary phrase gives the speaker anopportunityto display his knowledge of the Roman cultural world.Such a set appears n thephrase nstructioresandapparatiores,the con-dition in which the allies would have come to battle had they not beencountingon outsidehelp. This expressionis not simply a way of saying"really, really prepared."Instructus and apparatus denoted distinct

22Etis omittedn one branchf the radition; orthemanuscript amilies cf. FriedrichMarx,Incerti auctorisde rationedicendiad C. Herennium ibri IV(Stuttgart1923).23egopolSaureamonnouinequequa aciesit scio(PI.As.353), Merc.Saureamonnoui. Lib. At nosce sane. I Merc. Sit, non sit, non edepol scio (PI. As. 464-465), nouihumanitatemuam,cioquamisamicis ucundusCic.Att. 16.16f. ).


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250 BrianA. Krostenkokinds of military preparedness.Instruere in military contexts mostcommonly means to "draw up" troops into battle order (TLL7.1.2016.44 ff.), but in our passage must mean "fit out" with equip-ment, a meaning occasionally found, as in Livy's equitatumquoquenouis instruxitarmis "Healso equippedthe cavalrywith new weapons"(Liv. frag. 21).24Apparare, literally"makeready [with a view to somepurpose],"means "provide"with the requisite furnishings;most com-monly applied by Cicero to "furnishing"public rituals and privatedisplays(TLL2.269.60-270.14), in its rareappearancesn militarycon-texts it may mean "collect supplies"or "makepreparations" head oftime (TLL 2.270.14-45).25 Paired one with the other, instructus andapparatusthus suggest a completeness of preparation: pparatioresisforced to refer to prior preparations,ike the gatheringof materiel,andinstructiores o immediatepreparation,he actualfittingout of soldiers.This effect is achievedpreciselyby the choice of the rarercompoundedform apparare as a substitutefor the less preciseparare.26 Here is notmerely a merism for "preparedness": ere is the speech of someonewho knows how theytalk in theprincipia.

Comparable to the pair instructiores et apparatiores in its effects isthe phrase propter propinquitatem et omnium rerum societateni "onaccountof their closeness [to us] and association [with usj in all mat-ters," the sources of informationthat ought to have given the allies

24Cf. also magnoquenumeropdilorumragularumreliquorumqueelorumse instruxer-ant "Theyhad equippedthemselves with a great numberof javelins, spears, and othermissiles"(Caes. BC 1.57.2);TLL2.1.2019.45.25E.g., Massilienses tamennihilo setius ad delfensionem rbisreliquaapparare 'oepe-runt "Nevertheless he Massiliensesbeganto readythe remainingmaterial orthe (defenseof the city" (Caes. BC 2.7.4), Cn. Pomtpeiussc. bellum! extremoaieme aplparatit.i/ne-unte uere suscepit, media aestate confecit "Cn. Pompeiusreadiedfor war at the end ofwinter,undertook he warat the beginningof spring,and finishedthe war in the middleofsummer" Cic. Leg.Man. 35), cf. Cic. Phil. 5.30, Luc. 3.26Apparareand instruerearejoined only once elsewhere in Republicanprose, at Cic.Inv. 1.58: domus ea, quae ratione regitur,omnibusest instructiorrebuts et apparattiorquam ea, quae temere et nullo consilio administratur,where the non-militarycontextmay partlyneutralizethe differencebetween instruereand apparare,both of which areused synonymicallyfor furnishinghouseholds,games, spectacles,etc. In militaryor ago-nistic contexts the usual partnerof instruere s the vaguersimplex parare:so governingme (Cic. Ver.1.1.7), omnia [= res militares](Sull. 53, with ornare), se (Phil. 3.1), forti-tudo(Tusc.4.52, with armata),nauis (Fam. 12.15.2),exercitus(Caes. BG(;.59.5), Nuomi-dae (Sall. Jug. 74.3). This pair, in turn, i.e., instruereand parare, is only once foundappliedto "household/spectacle"urnishing,Cic. Ver 2.4.62 (of a conoiuiuiun).


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BinaryPhrasesand the MiddleStyleas Social Code 251knowledgeof Roman strength.Propinquitasrefers to physical proxim-ity, whereas omniumrerumsocietas refers to, as it were, social proxim-ity (and not primarilyto "thecondition of being a federal ally").27Theallies were close enough, from anypoint of view. The contrast betweenphysical and social proximity is doubtless the guiding idea of thephrase.But it is just possible that thereis anotherset of resonances. Invitro, as it were, propinquitas and societas would most probably sug-gest first not physical as against social proximity, but two kinds ofsocial proximity. Propinquitastypically described the kind of socialproximity producedby affinitas"relationshipby marriage."28 s suchpropinquitaswas readily constrastedto societas "relationshipby con-tract,"as in a passage of Cicero'spro Quinctio,a complicatedcase inwhich the litigantssharebothbusiness andfamilyties:

Etenim si ueritateamicitia,fide societas, pietatepropinquitascoli-tur,necesse est iste qui amicum,socium, adfinemfama ac fortunisspoliareconatusest uanum se et perfidiosumet impiumesse fatea-tur. (Quinct. 26)For if friendship (amicitia) is maintained by truthfulness (ueritas),association(societas) by trustworthinessfides), and familial rela-tionship(propinquitas)by respect(pietas), it follows thatsomeonewho has attempted to despoil a friend (amicus), associate (socius),and in-law (adfinis)of his fame and fortuneis admittingthat he isuntruthful,untrustworthy, nddisrespectful.

Pietas, the respect famously owed by Roman childrento theirparents,and ides, the sacrosanct rustworthiness xpectedof witnesses andcon-tractingparties, correspondto propinquitasand societas respectively,and in turnto the moralityof the relationships:ides is owed to partieswith whom one voluntarilyassociates, and pietas to parties to whom

27Thelatter ensedoes notoccurwitha modifyingenitive, s here.Forexamples fthe sense "associationin]"withgenitives, f. societatemarumrerumquaein (;alliacomparabanturCic.Quinct.12),et sermonist iuriset multarumerum ocietate Vel:2.5.167);cf. thesenseof socius at Red.Sen.25, Fam.1.9.22,Liv.4.24.2,Tac.Germ.36.3,Tac.Hist.1.65. Societas s "alliancebetweentates]"s rarenanycase,so that tsusehere, airly oonafter ocii,mayconstitutenadnominatiorpun Rhet.Her4.29).28Propinquitass sometimes istinguishedromaffinitas s "kin" s. "in-laws,"s inpropinquitatibusffinitatibusqueoniunctiCaes.BG2.4.4),cf. TLL10.2.2013.51,OLDs.v.propinquitasb.


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252 BrianA. Krostenkoone is involuntarilybound.29If the joint presence of societas andpropinquitascaused the Romanmapof the social world to flicker in thehearer'smind, then the pair propinquitasand societas may have sug-gested, behind the contrast between location and actual intercourse,also a contrast between involuntaryand voluntary associations, thelatter contrasta kind of metaphorical ransfer rom two uoces propriaefor describing relationshipsbetween individuals. And that transfer,inturn,suggests the differencebetween the, as it were, "necessary," on-tractual federal relationshipsand other forms of intercourse that theallies and Rome may have enjoyed. On this analysis a speakerwhoknows what these uoces propriaemean is here showing he also knowshow to exportthem suggestively.At any ratethe effect of the phraseisto exhaust the idea of proximity and leave the allies no excuse forignorance.

V. PAIRINGS 2): COLLOCATIONAL ETSSeveral of the otherbinaryphrases in our passage have the appear-ance of complementarysets. Virtus"courage, manliness; virtue"andindustria "hardwork,application"arethe qualitieswith which, accord-ing to the speaker,allies areexpected to help preserveRomanrule,andare, I suppose, qualitiesreasonablyexpected of allies in the conductoftheir federal duties. The phrase might be parsedas pairingthe "pure"versus the "applied"aspectsof character, o namebuta single possibil-ity. Opes et copia mightbe parsedas meaning"financialresources"vs."availablemilitarystrength.'"30f in the tripletgentes regesnationesone

may see gentes et nationes,which is attestedelsewhere,as a properpairsplit by reges, then a noun for "race"= "the progeny of a commonfounder" is paired with a noun for "race" = "the inhabitants of acommon place."'3In any case gentes reges nationes gives the effect of29Thiscontrasts broughtutinthe thelanguagef law,where hestockphrases rcpropinquitateconiunctus"joinedby propinquitas"Gai. Inst. 1.4.1, 1.7.1.,2.8.3, cf. 2.3.6and maximis uinclis et propinquitatiset adfinitatis coniunctus, Cic. Planc. 27; quasipropinquitateconiunctosatquenatura,Cic. Amic.50), butsocietatemcoire "entera soci-etas [jointly]"(Gai. Inst. 3.148, 149, cf. Cic. Quinct.76, S. Rosc. 21, 87, Q. Rose. 55,etc.).30Exercituset militumcopia dicitur,Paul. Fest. p. 81; for otherexamplesof the singu-lar= "troop,militaryorce,"f. TLL .905.18-42.31For hisdistinction,f. natiosolumpatriam uaerit, ensseriemmaiorumxplicat


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BinaryPhrases and the MiddleStyleas Social Code 253completeness, enumeratingevery principality,throne,and dominationthat hadbent a knee to Rome.But such analyses would be, according to the instance, wholly orpartly misleading; all of these pairs have collocational properties,apparentonly from the contexts in which the pairs appear.The pairuir-tus et industria has considerablymore point than may appearat firstsight. In Cicero its applicationis in fact quite specific: the pair,oftenalone, sometimes with othernouns,functions almostas a kind of politi-cal slogan, encapsulating he qualitiesused by the ambitious-which isto say, the less well-established-to scale the social ladder. In threeexamples Cicero applies it to the enterpriseof noui homines or "newmen,"the firstmembersof a familyto win a curuleoffice or consulship;forexample:

uidemus quanta sit in inuidia quantoquein odio apud quosdamnobilis homines nouorum hominum uirtus et industria. (Ver.2.5.181)We see how much envy and hatredon the partof certain noblesfalls upon the virtue (uirtus) and hard work (industria) of newmen.

In a comparablepassage Cicerorebukes he nobles' affection for Verresby notingin him the lack of qualitiesthatby implicationbelong to newmen:

"natio efersonlyto homeland, hereas enslooks o a sequence f ancestors,"e Dif-ferentiis,p.527,andTac.Germ. .5.Hence ens s used ora Romanlan,whereas atiois usedfora groupwith shared xperiencesra shared ocialenvironmentnatiocan-didatorum,ic.Mur. 9,cf. OLD3).TheAuthor'sentesregesnationes aises heques-tionof wordordern binaryphrases, speciallyhosewithcollocationalroperties.heprincipleeems o bethat here s a standardrder hat s occasionallynverted:o usu-allyuirtuset industria, utad industriamirtutemquet Cic.Rep. I, industriaeirltu-tiqueat Sest.137; ikewise totake wopairs romearlier ratoryreated urtherelow)usually nimus t ingeniumut hereverse t Cic.Div.2.97,Att.15.12.2, ndusually ir-tuset sapientia ut hereverse t Gracchus RF48.44.This nversions anexactreflec-tionon thephrasalevelof theprinciplesf Latinwordordern thesentence,n whichtherearestandardatternshatallowoccasionalnversionsorreasons f discourse rart.ThustheAuthor'sentesregesnationesmay perhaps e treated s aninversion f thecommon egesgentesnationes.ThedistinctionromEnglish ollocationalhrases,whichhavea fixedwordorder,s notable.


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254 Brian A. Krostenkoodistis hominum nouorum industriam,despicitis eorum frugali-tatem,pudoremcontemnitis, ingeniumuero et uirtutemdepressamexstinctamque cupitis: Verrem amatis! ita credo: si non uirtute,non industria, non innocentia,non pudore, non pudicitia, at ser-mone, at litteris,at humanitate ius delectamini.(Ver 2.3.8)You despise the hard work (industria)of the new men; you lookdown on their frugality, you scorn their modesty; their talent andtheir virtue (uirtus) you wish to see repressedand exstinguished:insteadyou love Verres!I'm sureI know your reasons: his speech,education,and cultureprovideyou such pleasure-though not hisvirtue (uirtus), hard work (industria),blamelessness, modesty, orpropriety!

The use of the phrase is not confined to the Verrines,where Ciceroaffects the ethos of a righteousoutsider.The older and ratherbetterestablishedCicero of thepro MurenareprovesServiusSulpiciusRufus,who had impugned Murena'sorigins; while Sulpicius' family was ofnoble stock, that was in the remotepast andthe family hadbeen undis-tinguishedof late:32

qua re ego te semper in nostrumnumerumadgregaresoleo, quoduirtute industriaque perfecisti ut, cum equitis Romani esses fil-ius, summatamenamplitudinedignusputarere. Mur 16)ThereforeI usually think of you as one of us (noster numerus=noui homines); for, even though you are the son of a Romanknight,by your uirtus and industriayou have caused yourself to beworthyof the highestdistinction(amplitudo).

While uirtus et industria seems to be especially associated with theefforts of noui homines,33 t could also refer to the honorable socialexertions of other sorts of, as it were, non-top-tierRomans,34usually32Oftheeventswhichoccasionedheepithet ouushomo,he rarestwastheascensionto theconsulshipf someoneroma non-senatorialamily, ndCicerohasthatsense nmindhere:SulpiciusRE95)was consul n 51 B.C.,uthis fatherwasof equestrianank(Mur. 6).33Forother xamples,f. theappendix.34ThusVer. .3.60,of a Romanknight C. Matrinium.. summauirtutehorninem,summandustria,umma ratia"C.Matrinius, manof thehighestvirtue, hehighestindustry,nd hehighestnfluence")ndFont.42, in a context eferringo thecontribu-


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BinaryPhrases and theMiddleStyleas Social Code 255with the implicationthat their social rewards were come by rightly-the very nuance that made the phraseperfect to express the aspirationsof the new men. Inasmuchas the conjunctionof uirtus and industriaimplied exertion and rightful deserts, it was paradoxicallythe perfectphrase to apply to the blueblood Ap. Claudius on his acquittals:35oruirtus et industriasuggest an accomplishmentowed to one's own right-ness ratherthan an exonerationabetted by one's high birth-or otherless savoryinfluences.The phrase opes et copia, which describes the resources a partyshould assess before makingwar,mayalso haveparticular ollocationalproperties.The similaropes et copiae "means and resources"is a fre-quentphrasein Cicero,appliedmost commonly to the assets at the dis-posal of powerful individuals,both privatecitizens in the conduct ofcivic life (Flac. 14, Clu. 18,de Or 2.342, Part. Or 86) andregentspro-viding war materiel(so Mur 33, Phil. 11.31);the phraseis also appliedto rich regions (Ver 2.4.46, of Sicily) and militaryresources(Balb. 39,Fam. 12.7.2). But there is a curious differencebetween opes et copiaeandopes alone. Opes et copiae is virtuallyalways used of successful orprospectivelysuccessful deploymentsof resources.If the Rullan bill ispassed, Cicerowarns the people thatthey "will see all of the ager Canm-panus passing into the hands of those awash in means and resources"(deinde ad paucos opibus et copiis adfluentistotumagrum Campanumperferri uidebitis,Leg. Agr 2.82). Cato's old age will be easier for himbecause of "the resourcesat [his] disposal and [his] good reputation"tion of municipal men to the Roman state (homines quorumcognita uirtus, indlustria,felicitas nremilitari it"menwhosevirtue,ndustry,ndgoodfortunenmilitaryffairsis recognized").lanc.9, of M. luventiusLaterensis, nobilis,buta plebeian,s worthcomparing:ucontinentiam,uindustriam,u animumn rempublicam,uuirtutem.tuinnocentiam, tufidem, tu labores tuos, quod aedilis non sis factus, fractos esse et abiectoset repudiatosutas?"Surely oudon'tthink hatbecauseyouwerenotelectedaedileyourdiscipline,hardwork,attitudeowardshestate,virtue,blamelessness,ndeffortshavebeenshatterednddiscarded?" eremayalsobegrouped am.5.17.4,addressedoP.Sittius,hen nexile,whichappliesuirtus t industriao his son:thepairdescribeshe"hardwork"hatmakes athers roud.35Fam.3.11.2,formaiestas,n June,50 B.C.; am.3.12.1,forambitusn August,50B.C.. hil. 13.50maybe a comparableassage:hereCicero uggestsan addendumo aletterof thanks ddressedo the senate o Sex.Pompeyn whichPompeys representedas having ctednotonly [pro] uapristinauirtutendustria oluntateutalsopropatrismaiorumqueuorum nimostudioquen rempublicam.Virtus ndindustriao pairedhighlight mong hereasons orthe senate's ratitudeo Pompey is realcontributions,besidehispolitical edigree.


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256 BrianA. Krostenko(propteropes et copias et dignitatemtuam,Sen. 8). Beside summauir-tus, greatopes et copiae are necessaryto defend the seriatefrom brig-andage(nec curiamsine summauirtute ac maximisopibuset copiis abintestinolatrocinioposse defendi,Red. Sen. 19). Opes may also be usedto describeprospectivelysuccessful resources,but when the resourcesfail or when an attempt s unsuccessful,opes alone is preferredby far,as in the evidently idiomatic expression opes frangere "shatter theresources of, defeat," of military and political losses, which neverappears n the formopes et copiasfrangere.36In short, the difference between opes and opes et copiae may bedescribedin terms of collocationalproperties,with the latterconnotingor tendingto connote resourcesthat are actuallyor prospectivelysuc-cessful, and the formerdenotingmerely "resources,"withoutregardtotheir effective or potentiallyeffective deployment.There is a roughlycomparable nuance to be found in the difference between English"wealth"as against "assets":"He is a man of considerable wealth"connotes stability, substance, and security, whereas "he is a man ofconsiderable assets," even if there is reference to exactly the samedollar value, instead suggests motion, trading, and deployment. Inshort "assets"connotes motion and "wealth"stasis.37The distinctionbetweenopes et copiae as againstopes is broadlysimilar.It may be thatthis distinctionis not inherent o the pair,butan epiphenomenonof theeffect of doubling: the doubling of words meaning"resources"mightbe expected, other things being equal, to sound better in positive con-texts andinappropriaten negativecontexts.It is possible thatone last amplificationalso has certaincollocationalproperties.The allies ought to have known betterthan to revoltagainst

36 Scipionis prouidentiaKartaginisopes fregit (Rhet. Her 4.43), conliunctionefangisenatus opes, diiunctioneciuile bellum excitari uidebam(Cic. Fam. 6.6.4), eadem enimcausa opes meas fregit (Cic. Fam. 6.13.4), frangi Lacedaemoniorumopes (Cic. Off:3.49). Compare also Lacedaemoniorumopes corruerunt(Cic. Off 1.84), accusatorumopibus et populus uniuersuset ... iudices restiterunt Cic. Mur.59), aedilitatempetiuitcum bonis uiris et hominibusprimis sed non praestantissimisopibus et gratia: tribumsuam non tulit ... (Cic. Sest. 114), hanc ... legem ad illius opes euertendas tainquamlnmnachinamomparari(Cic. Leg.Agr.2.50).37These nuancesclosely reflect the respectiveoriginsof the words:"Wealth,"he olderword in English, is from Middle Englishwelth "well-being, happiness,"a quality properto its possessor, whereasassets is an Anglicized form of the Old Frenchasez (Latinadsatis) and meant "enough (to pay debts)," signifying alienation of property,and thusmotionawayfroma possessor.


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BinaryPhrases ndtheMiddleStyleas SocialCode 257a people to whom were subjectomnesgentes regesnationes "all races,kings, and nations." Cicero commonly combines gentes and nationes,whetherreally referringto foreign nations, for example in respect totheir religious practices (e.g., Ver.2.4.108, 2.5.188), or affecting anexpression for "thewhole world"(e.g., Leg. Man. 35, Q.fr 1.1.9).38Insuch expressions rex and reges are never found. Their addition to thecombination changes the flavor of the phrase notably-and in anentirely predictableway, given the value of rex and regnumin Romansocial ideology. The triplet reges gentes nationes in Cicero is alwaysused to refer to foreignersin theircapacity as enemies of the Romanstate:

nam externa bella regum, gentium, nationum iam pridem itaexstinctasuntut praeclarecum iis agamusquos pacatosesse patia-mur.(Sest. 51)For foreign wars with kings, races, and nations have beensquelchedfor so long now thatwe have entirely respectabledeal-ings with partieswe now permitto be at peace.nullumexternumpericulumest, non rex, non gens ulla, non natiopertimescenda st. (Leg. Agr 1.26)There is no foreign danger;there is no king, no race, no nation tofear.

The potentialenergyof the mass of gentes andnationes,as it were, wasconverted by rex into hostile potential energy, in ratherthe same wayas, duringthe Cold War,"EasternEurope"could havemany valences-the lovelinesses of Krak6wor Prague,say, or the homelandof millionsof U.S. immigrants-but "Eastern bloc" (thanks in part to thehomophonous "block")connoted soulless Stalinist architecture,dron-ing propaganda,the Soviet Empire's grim vanguard,and bad shoes.Here, too, the collocational propertiesmay be an epiphenomenonofother semantic forces; in this case rex or reges summons up not onlydistinct "outsiders," ignifying heads of governmentfound only on the38 For other examples cf. omnium sacrorum quae apud omnis gentis natioliesqite J.itnt"of all the sacred rites that occur throughout he world"(Cic.

,Ver2.4.109), uo Ibe//llo

omnes gentes ac nationes premnebantur "a war which distressed the whole world" (Cic.Leg. Man. 35), Ver2.4.108, 2.5.76, 2.5.188, Font. 35, Leg. Man. 31, 56, Dor. 89, Har:Resp. 19, Prov.Cons.23, ND 3.93, Qif 1.53,Q.fr 1.1.9.


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260 Brian A. Krostenkospeaker--on the map of the Roman social and political world.43Hedoes not cause the acceptedidea of Rome's powerto flickerin his hear-ers' minds by the loaded phrasegentes reges nationes, which ought tohave given the allies pause; he apparently simply assumes nobiscumwill connote a powerful Rome. He does not assign the allies to theirplace in the social hierarchywith the near-sloganuirtuset industria;hesimply says socii, without specifying what that should imply. The"slack" speaker's one attempt at a binary phrase is malos et audaces"evil and daring." While malitia and audacia are occasionally associ-ated, the phrasemalus et audax, save for a single instance in Sisenna,seems to be a comic phrase.44Here,I hazard, t is meantto sound out ofdate or out of place-an awkward stab in the direction of a cardinalvirtueof thegood passage.The speakerof thegenus mediocrepassage knows morethan how touse establishedbinary(or ternary)phrases.He also knows how to cre-ate the solid feel of an establishedphrase by pairing appropriateex-emes, simultaneously exhausting and nuancing a given concept, andconcomitantly advertising his own knowledge. Apparatiores et instruc-tiores, for example, referringto two types of preparation,makes theaudience think about the tasks the allies ought to have thoughtaboutand subtly suggests, or so at any rate it seems to me, a speakerwhoknows military jargon. Propinquitas et omnium rerum societas can beread as virtually a paronomasia, not only with societas played againstsocii, but the whole complex in its literalsense playedagainst its valuein the Roman social world. The quasi-punthus reveals a speakerwhoknows not only what the terms mean but also how to make goodmetaphorical use of them-an effect that was perhaps especiallyacceptablein a style informedby epideixis, where self-conscious verbalplay was welcome. Last, the speakerof the genus mediocre passageknows how to adaptthe hackneyeddualismsof sophistic presentationsto illuminatehis subject, and that advertises,what, indeed, is alreadyclearfromthe numerous orms of exornatiowhichthe passagefeatures,his rhetoricaleducation,but equally his grasp of the subjectmatter to

43 1herederiverom hythmnd romhebinary hraseheverypointSinclair(above.,n. II)derives rom heuseof sententiae.44 ego illos malos et audaces semper enixim contra fortunas atque honores huius ordi-

nis omnia fecisse ac dixisse sentio (Sisen. fr. 110);fuisse et audacernet malum (PI.Bacch. 949), multumet audaxet malaes (PI.Men. 731), hominemaudacem et malum(PI.Most. 1078);cf. os habet, linguam,perfidiam,malitiamatqueaudaciam(PI.Mil. 189).


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BinaryPhrasesand the MiddleStyleas Social Code 261which he applies the dualisms: the contrastbetween uis and uoluntas,for example, trite as it may be, brings out something real about theRoman experience of expansion and provides a frame for the moreRoman armis and liberalitate;the pairingof noruntand scire et existi-marebringsout a real differencein categoriesof knowledge.It is to bestressed that the speaker'stouch here is sure: such distinctions couldeasily have been used to empty effect in a more Gorgianicfashion, forexample in a phraselike suas copias existimasse,suas res perlustrasse"tohave assessed their own resources,to havesurveyedtheirown mate-rial." By contrast a tripletlike non multitudinemmilitum,non idoneosimperatores,nonpecuniampublicam'a largenumberof soldiers, suit-able commanders,public funds"isolates, in a brushstroke-an allitera-tive brushstroke-three importantkinds of resourcesthat experiencedsenatorsmustreallyhave taken into accountwhen consideringwhetherto go to war.

VII. TOWARDSA HISTORYOF THE BINARYPHRASE ANDTHE MIDDLE STYLE IN LATINSo farmy analysishas examined the functionof the binaryphraseinthe "good" middle style passage mostly from the point of view ofcontent:what kindsof information t could convey and whatthat infor-mation, so conveyed, implied about the speaker.It is also possible toanalyze the binary phrase as a purelyformal feature. Independentofcontent, the use of particular ormal features in and of itself, or theiravoidanceandthe preference or otherfeatures,can alteror even create

aspects of a text's meaning and the speaker's ethos. In fact I havealready suggested how the features of exornatio and the metricalclausulae,signally lacking in the "bad"middle style passage, advertisethe rhetoricaleducationof the speaker.Althoughthe natureof the evi-dence requiresat points a more speculativetreatment, t is worth con-sidering the ethical effects of the binaryphrase itself-as well as theeffects of certain morphologicalformations and phrases found in the"bad"middle style passage, which providean illustrativecounterpoint.Whereas my examinationof content was mostly syntagmatic,theseformal featuresare best considereddiachronically.The binary phraseswith which the "good"middle style passage is decoratedseem to havebeen, at the time ourpassagewas composed, a rhetorical igureof rela-


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262 BrianA. Krostenkotively recentpopularity n Latin--despite the fact thatthey have a veryold pedigreeon Italian soil. Some of the most strikingexamples, won-derfully preservedamid straighttalk about cash farming, are found inCato's de Agriculturain a prayerto accompany the lustrationof thesuouetaurilia, the "triple sacrifice" of a pig, a sheep, and a bull(141.2-4).45 Thence comes the "sophistic"dualism we have alreadyseen, morbos uisos inuisosque "diseases seen and unseen." Pastorespecuaque "shepherdsand flocks" pairs human with non-human. Theprayer, ike the "good"middlestyle passage, also featuresseveralpair-ings of near- or partialsynonymsto producethe effect of completeness.Salutemualetudinemquewe have alreadyseen. Mars is asked to permitcrops grandire beneque euenire "to grow and reach good end," aphrasewhichpairs development-as-process "get bigger")anddevelop-ment-into-result "comeout well").46 Even the tripletnon multitudinenimilitum, non idoneos imperatores, non pecuniam publicam, which enu-merates the essential elements of military planning, has congeners inCato's prayer: he god is to act, says the orant,mihi domofamiliaequenostrae "for me, the house, and our household"and the lustrationisperformed fundi terrae agrique mei lustrandi "in order to purify myestate andlandandfield." These triplephrasesenumerate,respectively,the structureof the Roman household (paterfamilias,blood kin, andslaves) and threeways of seeing a plot of land (perhapsland-as-estate,a legal description; and-as-element,a geological description;and land-as-cultivated ield, a culturalor functionaldescription).47

45Fora detailedanalysisof the verbalplayof this prayer,which undoubtedlypreservesa verbal traditionwell antedatingCato, see Calvert Watkins,How to Kill a Dragon:Aspectsof Indo-EuropeanPoetics(New York1995) 197-213.46 In the structureof the prayer,which is organized "vertically"as well as "horizon-

tally," these verbs appear to have different subjects, respectivelyfruges frumrenta ="grain"and uineta uirgulta= "vineyards" cf. Watkins[above, n. 45] 205); but that, ofcourse,does not diminishthe effectiveness of the figureas a horizontalorganizingdevice.47This interpretation f the tripletis based on the rangeof the threenouns in Cato'sde

Agricultura,where terra meanssimply "soil, dirt,the ground" cf. OLD4a for the sense"landas source of vegetation"),undus the "estate,"and ager "soil as the focus of agri-culturalactivity."The tripletcan be parsed n otherways: for example, accordingto Flo-rentinus(Dig. 50.16.211.pr) in ruralusagefundus refers to the whole of an agriculturalpropertywith its buildings,whereas the land itself is called ager; in thatcase ager wouldrefer to cultivatedand terra to uncultivated and, with

.undustaking in the whole rural

complex. Inthe TwelveTables undus appliesto land withoutbuildings,but laterthey areincluded;cf. REs.v..undus. Accordingto the TLL6.1.1576.75-1577.6 Cato's is the onlypassagewhereindus is used parallel o ager.


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BinaryPhrases and the MiddleStyleas Social Code 263But for all its antiquity the device of the binary phrase does not

appear n the fragmentsof archaicoratory.There are a very few exam-ples fromCato's speeches, andthese, it seems to me-and hereI admitthatI appeal partlyto sensibilityrather hananalysis-have more to dowith emphasis than with providingthe neat little "package" ypical ofthe binaryphraseswe have so farexamined.In the lengthy fragmentsofCato's pro Rhodiensibus,the only possible examples are in the firstsentence:scio solere plerisquehominibusrebus secundisatqueprolixis atqueprosperis animum excellere atque superbiam atque ferociamaugescereatquecrescere.(ORF8.163, a. 167)I know that when things are lucky and abundantand fair men'sspirits usually soar and their haughtiness and pride grows andswells.

Superbiamatqueferociam is the best candidate n this sentence, if Catomeantsuperb- to signify the inner attitudeandferoc- its outer expres-sion.48 Augescere atque crescere may mirror he pairingof superbiamnatque ferociam, if augescere refers to augmentationconceived of ascreated from without and crescere to augmentationconceived of asbeing generatedfrom within.49By my lights there are only three otherpossible examples in the fragmentsof Cato's oratory-indeed, in anyfragmentof oratoryup to 123 B.C.:

41 Cf. Liv. 25.18.2, inde ingensferocia superbae suopte ingenio genti creuit inultisqueproeliis lacessebant Romanos,where erocia is the externalexpression that leads to bat-ties andsuperbadescribesthe inner[suopteingenio] dispositionof the Campanians.Thepair is used in a few places (PI. Amph.213, Plin. Pan. 14.1, Tac. Hist. 4.19, Rut. Alex.Mag. 7.11.23).49So the distinction of Ludwig Ramshorn,Dictionary of Latin SynonvnmesBoston1839), s.v. augeo. In supportof the distinctionit may be noted that augesco of res cor-poreae et naturales is typically accompaniedby a source or agent (TLL2. I1358.30ff.),whereasthe same is not true of cresco (TLL4. 1176.63 ff.). Furtherdetails are too compli-catedto rehearsehere.The dynamicof secundisatqueprolixisatquepro.peris is difficultto assess: it is structured he same way as formidulosius atque segnius atque timniditusbelow, with partialsynonymsframinga word of differentsemanticrange.Inthe Author'sgentes regesnationes, which is structured imilarly,the independentattestationof genteset nationes and reges gentes nationes makes analysis easier; Cato's triplets are notattestedelsewhere,norarethe putativebinaryphrases irmidulosus et timidus andsectun-dus et prolixusthey maycontain.


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264 Brian A. Krostenkoegoque iam pridemcognoui atqueintellexi atquearbitror empub-licam curare industrie summum periculum esse. (ORF 8.21,Dierum dictarumde consulatusuo, a. 191ex. vel 190)And for some time now I have recognized and understood andbelieve that managing the public business energetically is veryhazardous.censores qui posthac fiunt, formidulosius atque segnius atquetimidius pro re publica nitentur. ORF 8.50, Dierum dictarum deconsulatusuo, a. 191 ex. vel 190)Censors who come hereafterwill toil for the republicmore fear-fully and moresluggishlyandmoretimidly.cumque Hannibal terram Italiam laceraret atque uexaret (ORF8.187, de Achaeis,a. 151)And since Hannibalwas manglingandharrying he land of Italy

Of these only laceraretatque uexaret seems to me to have the dynamicof a binaryphraseas we have seen them so far, if the idea is to capturetwo kinds of wounding,one involving rendingandtheotherblows.50The attestationof early Romanoratory,preservedmostly in scraps,makes certain conclusions difficult;still, the fragmentsof pro Rhodien-sibus are extensive, and if the binary phrasewas not altogetherforbid-den to earlieroratory,at least it can be certainlysaid that Cato did notfeel it appropriateas a stylistic device in thatspeech or in the few oth-ers of which we possess at least a paragraph.By the laterfirstcentury,tastes were apparentlydifferent. A lengthypassage of Gaius Gracchushas several phrases which seem to exhibit the dynamic of the binaryphraseas we saw it in the "good"middlestyle passage.Thatperceptionis encouragedby a parallelisticclausal structure-the macro-version, fyou like, of the dynamicof a binaryphrase:

-5Lacerarerend,mangle;avage; isturb'nduexarebeat,buffet,harry; isturb' reoccasionallyaired lsewhere, oth orthedamage fflicted nbodiesand ntransferredapplications,e.g., Cic. Phil. 11.8, Tusc.3.35, Liv.2.56.8, 30.39.3. Cognouiatque intellexiatquearbitrormightalso work as a triplet, f the idea is knowledge-as-recognition,knowledge-as-perception,ndknowledge-as-observation;utperhapshephrases meantto describe process recognitionunderstandingconsideredpinion).


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BinaryPhrases and the MiddleStyleas Social Code 265nam uos, Quirites, si uelitis sapientia atque uirtute uti, etsiquaeritis, neminem nostrum inuenietis sine pretio huc prodire.omnes nos, qui uerba facimus, aliquid petimus, neque ullius reicausaquisquamad uos prodit,nisi ut aliquidauferat.ego ipse, quiaputuos uerbafacio, ut uectigaliauestraaugeatis,quo facilius ues-tra commoda et rem publicam administrarepossitis, non gratisprodeo; uerumpeto a uobis non pecuniam,sed bonam existima-tionem atque honorem. qui prodeuntdissuasuri ne hanc legemaccipiatis, petunt non honorema uobis, ueruma Nicomede pecu-niam; qui suadent ut accipiatis, hi quoque petunt non a uobisbonam existimationem, uerum a Mithridate rei familiari suaepretium et praemium; qui autem ex eodem loco atque ordinetacent,hi uel acerrimisunt;nam ab omnibus pretiumaccipiuntetomnis fallunt. uos, cum putatis eos ab his rebus remotos esse,inpertitisbonamexistimationem; egationes autema regibus,cumputanteos sua causa reticere, sumptus atque pecunias maximaspraebent, tem uti in terraGraecia,quo in temporeGraecustragoe-dus gloriae sibi ducebattalentummagnumob unam fabulamdatumesse, homo eloquentissimusciuitatis suae Demades ei respondissedicitur:"mirum ibi uidetur, i tu loquendotalentumquaesisti?ego,ut tacerem, decem talenta a rege accepi." item nunc isti pretiamaxima ob tacendum accipiunt. (ORF 48.44, Dissuasio LegisAufeiae, a. 123)For if you are willing to investigatethe matterwith intelligenceand moral sensibility,Quirites,you will not find, look though youmay, that any one of us comes forwardup here without a reward.All of us speakersare looking for something;no one comes beforeyou for any reason without wanting to take something away forhimself. I myself, in speakingbefore you to encouragean exten-sion of your uectigalia, in orderthatyou may betterlook afteryourown convenienceand the public treasury,do not come forwardforfree; I am looking to secure from you, not money, but reputationand honor.Those who come forwardto discourageyou from vot-ing for this law are not looking for honor from you, but moneyfrom Nicomedes; those who encourage you to vote for the law arealso looking, not for good reputationfrom you, but for a rewardanda price from Mithridates o be addedto their own property.Butthe silent membersof the same rankand stationarealtogethertheworst: they take money from everyone and deceive everyone. In


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266 Brian A. Krostenko

thinkingthem above such behavior,you attribute o them a goodreputation;but the kings' deputations,who think their silence is afavorto them, areoffering them considerablegifts and monies. Torecall an incident that happenedin Greece: a tragic actor thoughthimself honoredto have received an Attic talentfor a single play.Itis said thatDemades, the most eloquentman in the city, replied tohim: "Do you thinkmakinga talent for talkingis impressive?Theking has given me ten talents for not talking."These men likewisereceivegreatrewards or their silence.

Many of these pairs can be analyzed in exactly the same fashion asthose in the "good"middlestyle passage. The dynamicof the "sophis-tic" dualism uestra commoda et rempublicam is obvious. Sapientia anduirtushere may be the firstappearanceof the pair with a collocationalforce applying to intelligence.5' As instructiores et apparatiores is akind of merism for "prepared"hat also shows familiaritywith militarytechnicallanguage,so honor et existimatiois an expression for "publicstanding"comfortably deploying the correct membersof the languageof social assessment.52 Similar is the pair sumptus et pecunias: the51 Virtus et sapientia as a pair occasionally retain the force their individual nativesemantics would suggest, the "brains"of civic life and the "brawn"of militaryactivity,

e.g., Hor.Serm.2.1.72. Probably his is the idea behindthe appearanceof the pairin con-nection to the rise of Rome (Cic. Ver2.5.50, Sal. Cat. 51.42). But by the late Republicuirtus et sapientia seems to haveacquiredan additional,collocationalmeaningsignifyingsomethinglike "statesmanship,"n which intelligence, foresight,and/orexemplarymoralbehaviorplay the primarypartand militaryaccomplishmentneed not figureat all; so, forexample, of the statesmanlike creation of a legal code (ea enim uirtute et sapientiamaiores nostrifuerunt, ut in legibus scribendis nihil sibi aliud nisi saluten atque utili-tatem reipublicaeproponerent,Cic. Inv. 1.68).Cf. also Cic. Tusc. 1.100, Off.2.17, de Or:3.65. Gracchus'use, then, appearsto be the first instance of this collocational force, sig-nifying "moralintelligence." On the word order of the phrasein Gracchus,ef. above,n. 31.52Existimatio is a broad term ("11n'a ... jamais la valeur relativementpr6cise desmots techniquesou quasi-techniquesde ce vocabulaireet ne cesse pas d'apparteniraudomaine le plus g6n6ral,"Hellegouarc'h[above, n. 20], 363), whereas honos has specificassociations of fides and officium(ibid. 383-384) and refers not to social preeminenceonly. The terms are precisely those which involve assessment by others (cf. Gracchus'peto a uobis) and are neither inheritable nor associated specifically with the senatorialelite (unlike, say, gloria or dignitas:cf. Hellegouarc'hs.vv.).The only time Cicero pairshonor and existimatio s in concertwith other nouns andappliedto Greeks (genere, hon-ore, copiis, existimatione acile principemLampsacenorum,Ver.2. 1.64; est genere, hon-ore, existimatione,pecuniaprinceps,Flac. 72).


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BinaryPhrases and the MiddleStyleas Social Code 267semantics of the nouns, respectively "expenses"and "monies," orm anice complementary catchphrase for "bribes":in tandem the nounseitherrepresentboth ends of the transaction a bribeis a sumptusfromthe giver'spoint of view andpecunia from the taker's)or-more proba-bly, it seems to me-describe two kinds of gifts, those of cash (pecu-niae) and those of purchased items (sumptus). Loco atque ordine is akind of pun of exactly the same order as propinquitatemet onmniunmrerumsocietatem above, with one meaning in the Roman social worldthatpeeks throughthe differentmeaning requiredby the context." If r-eset against spe were forced by a phonetic figure into referring toopposed, or rather opposable, ideas-"motivation" versus "expecta-tion"-so praemium and pretium, bound into a pair by alliteration,reflectopposite ends of the conceptualfield of "reward,"he one prop-erly symbolic and theotherproperly iteral.54A fragment of C. Laelius Sapiens' Laudatio P. Cornelii ScipionisAemiliani that was delivered by Q. Fabius Maximus six years afterGracchus'speech displaysthe same techniqueas Gracchus'passage:55

quiapropterneque tanta diis inmortalibusgratia haberi potest,quantahabendaest, quod is cum illo animo atque ingenio hac eciuitate potissimum natus est, neque tam moleste atque aegre56[mi] ferriquamferundum eum]est, cum eo morbotrumtemouitetin eodem temporeperiit,cum et uobis et omnibus, qui hanc rem53Whereasin the context of Gracchus'speech the noun pair appearsto describe pri-

marilya literal place from which speakersare steppingforwardto addressthe co0tio orcomitia-the passage is full of other phrases that draw attention to the locality (hucprodire,ad uos prodit, aput uos, prodeunt)-the phrasealso resonateswith its value inthe Romansocial world,suggestingstatus andrank, n this case the senatorial--doubtlessthe primary argetof Nicomedes' andMithridates'bribes.54Praemium properly describes a symbolic allocation of honor (cf. 7LL s.v.) andpretiumproperlya "price" n the literalsense (so its use in legal texts, e.g., Gaius 3. 139).Pretiumand praemiumthus very occasionally form an expression for "reward,recom-pense,"as in Gracchus,so also in Cic. Leg. 1.48 (item iustitia nihil expetitpraeinii, nihilpretii);cf. Quadr.Ann. fr.41. Partof the effect of Gracchus'figurelies in the flexibilityofbothpretiumandpraemium:pretium s sometimes used metaphorically or "deserts." ndlikewise praemiumspecifically for a particular"price." Howeverrecompensebe styled,forGracchus t all comes down to res.familiaris.55Accordingto the ScholiaBobiensia to Cicero(Mil. 18), Laeliuswrotethe speech butFabiusdeliveredit.56aegre is Mai's suggestion for acre; my translationof the locus desperatusfollowsroughlyStangl'scorrection o cumisto modomortemobiit.


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268 BrianA. Krostenkopublicam uolunt,maxime uiuo opus est, Quirites.(ORF20.22)In these circumstanceswe cannot feel the gratitude o the immortalgods that we should for his havingbeen born,so spiritedand intel-ligent, to this state in particular;and neithercan we feel the griefand the pain thatwe should for his havingmet death too soon andhaving perished at the very moment when you and everyone whowants the governmentsoundmost need him alive, Romans.

The parallelismof the structures clearenough, augmented n one case,if Stangl's correction is right, by a figura etymologica (obiit - periit),andenhancedby severalbinarypairs.Animusandingeniumhave a cer-tainoverlap("mind,""intellectualpowers,""character"), ut the formeris more emotional,the lattermore intellectual.57Moleste andaegre arenicely complementary, nasmuch as molestus properlysignifies pain asburdenimposed from without (cf. moles "burden")and aeger pain asarisingfrom the inside, like an illness.58The reasons that by the time of Gracchus the binary phrase hadbecome an acceptable,desirable,or more attractivedecorative devicefor oratoryare not far to seek: they must lie in the influence of Greekrhetoric-in which the Gracchibrotherswere notoriously expert (Cic.de Or 1.38). One of the centraleffects on Latinprose of the increas-ingly close study of Greek rhetoricalmodels was the importation ntoprose of structures that had hitherto been confined to poetry. The

57HenceOff 1.80-81,where motionalontrol ndrationalesponse refunctionsftheanimus, ndforethoughts a function f ingenium,husdividingntellectualctivityintothe reactive nd heproactive;ndhenceBrut.93,whereuisingenircferso a talentfor emotional ratory nduis animito a naturallymotional isposition.Animus ndingeniumhus form a naturalomplementaryairfromthe earliest iteraturePlaut.Bacch.494,Tri.92 [plur.],Ter.Adelph. 29,cf. Ter.Andr.114-115)andareso usedbyCicerobothalone(Mur.16;Lig.35, where ee Gotoff'snote;Phil.2.46;tie O: 1 113:Lucull.73, 127;Div.2.97;Off..1.74;Fam.2.1.2, 10.28.2,12.23.1,12.24.1,Att. 1.18.2,Ep.Brut.3.4)andwithothernouns withauctoritas,eipublicaepraesidium,Murl 2;withconstantia,est.99;withconsilium, hil.5.23,Repub.1.8,6.12,Faim..14.7,Att.14.17a.7, 5.12.2;withuires,de Or3.5).58Henceaegre erre is lesscommon hanaegrepati,andvice versa ormoleste; f.TLL1.943.61 f.Whileaegre erredates o PlautusCapt.146), his s thefirstattestationof molesteerre,whichafterwardss primarily iceroniancf.TLL .1355.27f.),and heonlyplacewheremolest- ndaegr-arepairedotherhana list of synonymst Cic.Fin.1.59).


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BinaryPhrasesand the MiddleStyleas Social Code 269constituentorderAl + B + A2, to take a single example-a perfectlyregulareffect in Ciceronianoratoryand Greekprose-appears in Latinfrom the earliest literary attestations, as in these virtually randomexamples:59

Solus solitudine Al [ego ted]Batque ab egestateA2abstuli (Pl. As.163)nuntiisAl praesimB t lucroA2 PI.Amph.12)regesAlquo ueniantB t diA2(P1.Amph.61)60

But such a structuredoes not appearin the fragmentsof Latin oratoryuntilGracchus:quo me miser conferam?quo uortam? n Capitoliumne?at fratrissanguine redundat. an domum? matremne ut miseram lamentan-temAl uideamBet abiectamA2?ORF 48.61, oratio extremis vitaediebushabita,a. 121).

The binary phrasewill have been another such device, legitimatedforprose in the decades preceding the composition of the Rhetorica adHerenniumby the influence of Greek literarymodels. To excerpt andanalyze likely models would entail rehearsingthe stylistic canons ofGreekprose and imaginingtheirreception by the Romans, a task wellbeyondthe purposesof this article. But the harmonybetween the binaryphrase, which typically co-occurs, as we have seen, with parallelisticclausal structures,and the style of Isocratic epideixis is obvious-astyle of epideixis, as we will see presently,thatis likely to have loomedlargein the Author'sconceptionof the middlestyle.If the "good"middlestyle passage is thus up to date, the "bad"pas-sage is not. Consonantwith the out-of-date tone of malos et audaces,which we have alreadyseen, the "bad"middle style passage acquiresadistinctly archaic flavor from several of its expressions.Belligerare isan old word for "wage war." Known to Plautus, it also appears in

59The figure is called coniunctio (=ouEvetypEvov)

by the Author (4.38), whoseexampleis formae dignitasaut morbodeflorescitaut uetustate.6oThere are around wentyexamplesin theAmphitruo,he exact numberdependingonone's definitionof a constituent.


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270 BrianA. KrostenkoEnnius.61But it had apparently allen out of fashion by the late Repub-lic: Caesarand Sallust, who do not lack opportunitiesto discuss war-fare, never use it. Its other late Republicanor early Imperial appear-ances seem explicableeitherby its phonetics-in its single appearancesin Hirtius and Livy, it appears to have been chosen to anchor ajingle62-or its very antiquity: ts single use in a speech of Cicero is ina striking phrasein a melodramaticpassage to which an antiquepoeti-cism is well suited, sed etiam cumfortuna belligerandum fuit "but I hadto do battle even with fortune" (Red. Pop. 19). This last exampleensures thatthe verb had an archaicflavor,rather hanonly a colloquialone (as the Hirtius passage alone might have suggested). The struc-turally comparablemorigerare(-ari), also an old form that is virtuallyextinctby the late Republic,63makesthe issue clear:classical Latinhadceased to be able to form compounds freely, which in some casesretroactively aggedeven alreadyexisting forms as poetic or anomalousand encouragedtheirreplacementby analytic forms-so in the case ofthese verbs, morem gerere and bellum gerere.64

61 PI. Capt.24, 93, Pers. 26, Truc.183,628; non cauponanteshbelum ed belligerantesI erro, nonauro uitamcernamusutrique Enn.Ann.6.184-1 85).62tamenCaesar omniapatiendaesse statuit,quoadsibi spes aliqua relinqueretur urepotius disceptandi quambelligerandi(Hirt.BG 8.55.2); cum Gallis tumultuatumueriusquambelligeratum(Liv. 21.16.5). Livy's tag has another unusual exical usage: tumultu-are is only here in the sense of "scrap,scrimmage" OLD Ic), rather han"makea com-motion"(OLD 1).63Known to the older language(Acc. trag.469, Plaut.Amph.981, Capt.966; mOa-riger-atio, Afran.tog. 380; commonestis the adjectivalformmorigerus),morigerarevanishesfrom classical Latin,replacedby moremgerere,but for a singular,doubtlessmildlyjocu-lar,instancein Cicero:consule ueritatem:reprehendet; eferad auris: probabunt;quacrecur ita sit; dicent iuuare;uoluptatiautemauriummorigeraridebetoratio "Askthe truth,it will object;take [theforms]to yourears, they'll approve;ask why, they'll say they likethem;andspeech has to indulgethe pleasureof the ears"(Orat. 159).Cicerohasjust dis-cussed the problemof apparentlyrrational ound changesthat,by his lights, happennon... natura sed quodaminstituto "not naturallybut by a kind of agreed-uponpractice."Morigerare ndexes Cicero'scheerful surrender-and rejectionof pureanalogia; the onlything to do in the face of a messy system is "tipyourhat to what soundsgood."64Compoundswith a nominalfirst element and verbalsecond element (which secondelement may be in verbal form, as belligerare, morigerare;in participialform, as bel-lipotens, altiuolans; in adjectivalform, as signifer, carniuorus;or in nominal form, asagricola, indigena), are an almost completely unproductivecategory in the classicalperiod, with the exception of poetic language,and there largelyconfined to a few types(e.g., adjectivalcompoundsin -ger and -.fer).Compoundswith nominal or adjectivalele-ments thatalreadyexisted typicallyremainwithoutacquiringtonalcolor, butcompounds


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272 Brian A. KrostenkoOne more example, not an archaism, s worthnoting, since, as withratiocinariandbelligerare,it exhibitsan avoidanceof ordinaryexpres-sion. The apparentlyunremarkablemagna negotia agere is unparalleledin Cato, Plautus,Terence,Cicero,Caesar,Sallust,orLivy; here it seemsto be a kind of deliberateliteralism,composing elements in a way thatlooks past their standardcollocational force: for negotiumagere in thelate Republic means, not "performa task," which is the sense thatseems to be requiredhere (approx.=facere or conficere),but"takecareof something, look after something" (approx. = curare).70Magnumnegotium, for its part, may also have sounded slightly amiss in the

sense "major"or "importantundertaking": y the late Republic mag-numnegotiumseems to have acquireda colloquial tone (= "big job" or"a lot of work"as opposed to "a majorundertaking").71 ooking pastdevelopedcollocationalforce is also a kind of archaism,as if to recom-bine the elements in their original meanings and ignore the semanticdevelopmentsthat have in meantimehappened.If one imaginesa writerwho used "He told him to hit the road" o mean not "He orderedhim todepart"but "He ordered him to strike the pavement,"then one hassomethingof the effect.These peculiaritiesof the "bad"middlestyle passage set its failuresinto relief. In the canons of Roman oratoricalstyle there was nothing

7"Negotiumagere is not a commonexpressionin the late Republic,neverappearing nCaesarand Sallust.Cicero uses the phraseonly if a personal pronounmodifiesnegotium,in the meaning"takecare of [someone's]business,""lookafter[someone's] affairs,"usu-ally with an implicationof selfishness: tuumnegotium agere loquebantur Ver 2.3.149),non debuisse, cum praetor esset, suum negotium agere (Flac. 85), cf. Mil. 47, de 0,:2.275, Off 1.29, 1.125, Fam.7.2.2. A neutralsense, "doa thing," s confinedto the veryrarepassive expressions(in the late Republic,also confinedto Cicero):cf. in re nihil estargumenti, n negotio quodactum esse diciturnullumuestigiumsermonis, lotCi,temporis(Cael. 55); ut iis negotiisquaeagerentur nteresset(Art.15.18.1 .71Magno negotio is a fixed adverbialphrasefor "withgreatdifficulty":apros quidnemposse haberi in leporario nec magno negotio ibi et captiuos et cicuris, qui i/li nati sint,pingues solerefieri scis, inquit,Axi (Var.R.R. 3.13. I . utt . . reliquae(sc. naues) tamenreficiposse magno negotio uiderentur,Caes. BG 5.11.2; B. Alex. 8.4; Cels. Med. 7.5. la,8.4.7. Outsideof this expression,the tone of magnumnegotiumseems to be morecollo-quial;the phraseoccursin staccato,breezy,or intimatepassages(id si ita est. onia faucil-iora; sin aliter, magnum negotium,Cic. Fam. 11.14.3; negotium magnumest nauigareatque id mense Quintili,Att. 5.12.1; intellego permagnumesse negotiumet maximicon-sili, Q.ftr 1.1.7). It is worthnotingthatmagnitudonegoti (e.g. Cic. Mur: 41, Red.Sen. 37)has no such restriction: he tone of one element of a set of derivatives(as with negotiumagere vs. negotiumagi; cf. above,n. 70) is not necessarily passedon to the whole set.


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BinaryPhrases ndtheMiddle tyleas SocialCode 273wrongwith archaismor odd vocabularyper se: indeed,we just saw thatCicero used belligerareand sermocinarito fine effect. The problemlieswith the Author'sparticularconceptionof the characterof the middlestyle. One might have felt, even without the Author'sexample of the"bad"middle style, that poeticisms or archaismson the one hand andcolloquialismson the otherbelong most properlynot to the middle butto the grandandplain styles. But the "bad"middlestyle passage makesthis aspect of the Author'ssensibility especially clear.His ideal of themiddlestyle is fairlynarrowlyIsocratean-ordinaryvocabularyarrayedin clear and parallelistic structuralframes.72Not for the Author, itwould seem-as later, not for Caesar, either73-the lexical flexibilitytypical of other kinds of epideixis-that of the pseudo-DemosthenicErotic Essay, say, or even Cicero himself (and probablyHortensius).The "bad"middle style falls outside the Author'scanons not only bywhat it lacks, structure,but also by what it has, non-standardvocabu-lary.In short, the "bad"middle style speakeris not only one who cannotlocate his idea on the terrainof contemporary deology; he is also onewho cannotpresenthis idea accordingto some fairlynarrowparticularsin contemporaryaesthetic standards.74n both those failures-and inthe correspondingsuccesses of the "good"middle style passage-thesimple device of the binary phraseplays an important,almost the cen-tral,role.

72 Accordingto Dionysius of Halicarnassus, socrates'languageis very pureAttic: heuses ordinaryand familiarwords (Isoc. 2), avoids the archaicand obscure (ibid.), andwhile admittingmorefigurative anguagethanLysias,does soto an unremarkable egree

(Isoc. 11). For a critiqueof Isocrates'propensity o counterbalance, f. Isoc. 14.73tamquam copulumsic fiuias inauditumatque insolens uerbum de Analogia, fr. 2).74It is worthcommentingherethat the Author'saestheticstandardsappearnot to havelong outlivedthe publicationof his text, at least to judge by Cicero.Conjunct phrasesarecommonin Cicero'sredundantiauuenilis(Brut.316) andcontinueto be used throughoutCicero's oratoricalcareer (cf. the remarksof EduardNorden,Die antike KunstprosaI[Leipzig 1898] 225-233), but neitherare they as easily amenableto analysis as comple-mentarysets, as are many of the pairsin the Rhet. Her. passage, nor are binary phrasesthe chief organizingprincipleof Cicero'sphrases, ust as strictparallelism s not the chieforganizingprincipleof his clauses. When the matureCicero aims for epideictic paral-lelism, he deliberatelyvaries the internal structureof the pairedclauses (cf. H. Gotoff,Cicero's Elegant Style [Urbana, IL 1979] passim)-presumably to avoid what hadbecome a cloying effect.


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274 BrianA. KrostenkoAPPENDIX:FURTHEREXAMPLES OF

VIRTUS AND INDUSTR-For other examples of uirtus and industr- connected to nouihomines, cf. M. uero Catoni, homini ignoto et nouo, quo omnes, quiisdem rebus studemus, quasi exemplari ad industriam uirtutenmqueducimur"M. Cato, an unknown new man, by whose example all of uswho have the same ambitionsare broughtto industria and uirtus(Cic.

Repub. 1.1); ... aditusque in illum summum ordinem omnium ciuiumindustriae ac uirtuti pateret "and that access to that highest rank beopen to the industryand virtue of all citizens" (Cic. Sest. 137; on theword order of the phrase in these two examples, cf. above, n. 3 1).The co-appearanceof uirtus and industr- in the following passages,while not in the form of binaryphraseas I have defined it, is nonethe-less worth noting: deinde ista praeclara nobilitas desinat queri popu-lum Romanum hominibus nouis industriis libenter honores mandaresemperque mandasse: non est querendum in hac ciuitate, quae propteruirtutem omnibus nationibus imperat, uirtutem plurimum posse "So letour distinguished nobility cease to complain that the Roman peoplefreely entrust and have always entrustedhigh office to hard-working(industriis)new men;thereis no reason to complainthatvirtue(uirtus)has great influencein this state which rules over all nations because ofits virtue (uirtus)"(Cic. Ver 2.4.81, with a pun on uirtus "character"and uirtus "courage; military strength"); nego usquam unmquamuissemaiores [fructus]; ubi si quis ignobili loco natus ita uiuit ut nobilitatisdignitatem uirtute tueri posse uideatur, usque eo peruenit quoad eumindustria cum innocentia prosecuta est "I say no state has ever offeredgreaterrewards[sc. to a nouushomo thanours]-a state where if any-one not of noble birth lives in such a way that he seems capable ofdefending the status of the nobility by his own virtue (uirtus), heachieves as much as hardwork (industria),and blamelessness,allows"(Cic. Clu. 111).UNIVERSITY FNOTREDAME

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