Ingles Tecnico Nivel I UTN FRBA PDF

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Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Facultad Regional Buenos Aires Cuadernillo Inglés Técnico Nivel I

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Ingles Tecnico Nivel I UTN FRBA PDF, cuadernillo de ingles tecnico Nivel 1 de la facultad UTN FRBA

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Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Facultad Regional Buenos Aires

Cuadernillo Inglés Técnico Nivel I

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Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Facultad Regional Buenos Aires

Cuadernillo Inglés Técnico Nivel I

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Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Facultad Regional Buenos Aires

Cuadernillo Inglés Técnico Nivel I

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Texto N°1

engineering

en�gi�neer�ing

noun \-ɑnir-iŋ\

Definition of ENGINEERING

1 : the activities or function of an engineer

2 a : the application of science and mathematics by which the properties of matter and

the sources of energy in nature are made useful to people

b : the design and manufacture of complex products<software engineering>

3 : calculated manipulation or direction (as of behavior) <social engineering> —

compare GENETIC ENGINEERING

See engineering defined for English-language learners »

See engineering defined for kids »

Examples of ENGINEERING: This control panel is a good example of smart engineering.

First Known Use of ENGINEERING: 1720

engineering

noun (Concise Encyclopedia)

Professional art of applying science to the optimum conversion of the resources of nature

to the uses of humankind. Engineering is based principally on physics, chemistry, and

mathematics and their extensions into MATERIALS SCIENCE, solid and

fluid MECHANICS, THERMODYNAMICS, transfer and rate processes, and systems analysis. A

great body of special knowledge is associated with engineering; preparation for

professional practice involves extensive training in the application of that knowledge.

Engineers employ two types of natural resources, materials and ENERGY. Materials acquire

uses that reflect their properties: their strength, ease of fabrication, lightness, or

durability; their ability to insulate or conduct; and their chemical, electrical, or acoustical

properties. Important sources of energy include fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, gas), wind,

sunlight, falling water, and nuclear fission. See also AEROSPACE ENGINEERING,CIVIL

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ENGINEERING, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING. GENETIC ENGINEERING, MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING, MILITARY ENGINEERING.

Texto N° 2

Different Types of Metal Corrosion and Basic Preventative Coatings

It’s common for high performance structural components to experience some form of corrosion regardless of what type of material is used. Corrosion resistant coatings can increase the lifespan of a part, as well as reduce maintenance and replacement costs, but in order to select the appropriate coating it’s important to identify what kind of corrosion a part is prone to. Based on how a part is used and what conditions it’s exposed to, the kind of corrosion that develops may differ. There are five

general types of corrosion:galvanic, stress cracking, general, localized and caustic agent corrosion. (See page here.)

Galvanic corrosion is extraordinarily common, and occurs when two metals with different electrochemical charges are linked via a conductive path. Corrosion occurs when metal ions move from the anodized metal to the cathodic metal. In this case, a corrosion resistant coating would be applied to prevent either the transfer of ions or the condition that causes it. Galvanic corrosion can also occur when one impure metal is present. If a metal contains a combination of alloys that possess different charges, one of the metals can become corroded. The anodized metal is the weaker, less resistant one, and loses ions to the stronger, positively charged cathodic metal. Without exposure to an electrical current, the metal corrodes uniformly; this is then known as general corrosion.

Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) can seriously damage a component beyond the point of repair. When subjected to extreme tensile stress, a metal component can experience SCC along the grain boundary—cracks form, which are then targets for further corrosion. There are multiple causes of SCC, including stress caused by cold work, welding, and thermal treatment. These factors, combined with exposure to an environment that often increases and intensifies stress-cracking, can mean a part goes from suffering minor stress-corrosion to experiencing failure or irreparable damage.

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General corrosion occurs as a result of rust. When metal, specifically steel, is exposed to water, the surface is oxidized and a thin layer of rust appears. Like galvanic corrosion, general corrosion is also electrochemical. In order to prevent oxidation, a preventative coating must interfere with the reaction.

Localized corrosion occurs when a small part of a component experiences corrosion or comes in contact with specific corrosion-causing stresses. Because the small “local” area corrodes at a much fast rate than the rest of the component, and the corrosion works alongside other processes such as stress and fatigue, the end result is much worse than the result of stress or fatigue alone.

Caustic agent corrosion occurs when impure gas, liquids, or solids wear a material down. Although most impure gases do not damage metal in dry form, when exposed to moisture they dissolve to form harmful corrosive droplets. Hydrogen sulfide is an example of one such caustic agent.

Corrosion Resistant Coatings

Corrosion resistant coatings for metal vary depending on the kind metal involved and the kind of corrosion prevention needed. To prevent galvanic corrosion in iron and steel alloys, coatings made from zinc and aluminum are helpful. Large components, such as bridges and energy windmills, are often treated with zinc and aluminum corrosion resistant coatings because they provide reliable long-term corrosion prevention. Steel and iron fasteners, threaded fasteners, and bolts are often coated with a thin layer of cadmium, which helps block hydrogen absorption which can lead to stress cracking.

In addition to cadmium, zinc, and aluminum coatings, often nickel-chromium and cobalt-chromium are often used as corrosive coatings because of their low level of porosity. They are extremely moisture resistant and therefore help inhibit the development of rust and the eventual deterioration of metal. Oxide ceramics and ceramic metal mixes are examples of coatings that are strongly wear resistant, in addition to being corrosion resistant.

Other Chemicals Guides

• General Industrial Paint Components • Hardwood Floors: Cleaning and Maintenance • The History of Green Chemistry and Processes

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Texto Nº 3

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Texto N° 4

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Texto N° 5

The Compton EffectThe Compton EffectThe Compton EffectThe Compton Effect

In physics, Compton scattering is a type of scattering that X-rays and gamma rays undergo in matter. The inelastic scattering of photons in matter results in a decrease in energy (increase in wavelength) of an X-ray or gamma ray photon, called the Compton effect. Part of the energy of the X/gamma ray is transferred to a scattering electron, which recoils and is ejected from its atom (which becomes ionized), and the rest of the energy is taken by the scattered, "degraded" photon.

Inverse Compton scattering also exists, where the photon gains energy (decreasing in wavelength) upon interaction with matter. Since the wavelength of the scattered light is different from the incident radiation, Compton scattering is an example of inelastic scattering, but the origin of the effect can be considered as an elastic collision between a photon and an electron. The amount the wavelength changes by is called the Compton shift. Although nuclear compton scattering exists, Compton scattering usually refers to the interaction

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involving only the electrons of an atom. The Compton effect was observed by Arthur Holly Compton in 1923 at Washington University in St. Louis and further verified by his graduate student Y. H. Woo in the years following. Compton earned the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery.

The effect is important because it demonstrates that light cannot be explained purely as a wave phenomenon. Thomson scattering, the classical theory of an electromagnetic wave scattered by charged particles, cannot explain low intensity shifts in wavelength (Classically, light of sufficient intensity for the electric field to accelerate a charged particle to a relativistic speed will cause radiation-pressure recoil and an associated Doppler shift of the scattered light, but the effect would become arbitrarily small at sufficiently low light intensities regardless of wavelength.) Light must behave as if it consists of particles to explain the low-intensity Compton scattering. Compton's experiment convinced physicists that light can behave as a stream of particle-like objects (quanta) whose energy is proportional to the frequency.

The interaction between electrons and high energy photons (comparable to the rest energy of the electron, 511 keV) results in the electron being given part of the energy (making it recoil), and a photon containing the remaining energy being emitted in a different direction from the original, so that the overall momentum of the system is conserved. If the photon still has enough energy left, the process may be repeated. In this scenario, the electron is treated as free or loosely bound. Experimental verification of momentum conservation in individual Compton scattering processes by Bothe and Geiger as well as by Compton and Simon has been important in disproving the BKS theory.

If the photon is of lower energy, but still has sufficient energy (in general a few eV to a few KeV, corresponding to visible light through soft X-rays), it can eject an electron from its host atom entirely (a process known as the photoelectric effect), instead of undergoing Compton scattering. Higher energy photons (1.022 MeV and above) may be able to bombard the nucleus and cause an electron and a positron to be formed, a process called pair production.

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Texto N° 6

Sunday March 3, 2013

Profound changes to keep the growing trend

By: Carlos A. Pefaur

The Citroën C3 second generation went through some deep structural, style and mechanical changes

in order to improve its ride comfort and equipment compared to its previous version.

We tested the new Citroën C3 My Way Exclusive Pack (top version) powered with a 1.6-L engine,

which is already available in Argentina.

The new C3 was presented in Argentina last November and has been commercialized under pre-sale

mode for the past two months. The official release in our market has been scheduled for March.

Manufactured in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the new C3 is based on a new platform that makes it a total

different model compared with its predecessor, whose production the French automaker has already

ended.

Positioned at the top of the compact cars segment,

the new C3 comes to the picture to compete with

rivals such as Ford Fiesta Kinetic Design, Chevrolet

Sonic, Fiat Punto, and Honda Fit.

Citroën's goals for this year are big as it aims to sell

40,000 units, a considerable figure considering the

industry’s current situation. Plus, and according to the

brand, the C3 is indicated to be the main actor in order to achieve such a goal.

The new C3 uses a platform similar to the C3 Picasso, as it was adapted to the domestic needs.

Compared with the previous C3, it keeps same wheelbase (2.46 metres), but now it is 9.4 centimetres

longer and 4.1 cm wider.

With a very nice style, we must highlight its Zenith panoramic windshield which increased by 80

percent the upper vision. Because of this windscreen, which is known in Europe as “Visiodrive”, it

makes a big difference with its rivals. The C3 captures one’s attention with its fine design. Unlike its

French version, this one has adopted a metal grille and permanent LED lights, being the latter an

exclusive feature for its segment.

The driving position is quite comfortable and much better than on the previous model thanks to the

driver’s seat, that now can be set lower, and the adjustable steering wheel. The increase of the body

dimensions is reflected in the interior, which is especially comfortable with plenty of legroom in the rear

row.

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The trunk is virtually unchanged from its predecessor as it still offers a load capacity of 300 litres, an

average value for the segment. The cockpit shows a modern and functional design and good quality

materials. The instrumentation combines analog and digital elements. The browser is highly practical

and offers good performance.

Soundproofing has improved, especially when driving on route. Driving is good and smooth even on

uneven paths and roads.

The sliding roof, which slides back about 40 centimetres, can transform this standard car in a window

to the world, or a good option to avoid overheating at noon hours by closing it.

Named EC5, the 1.6- litre, 16-valve and four-cylinder gasoline engine delivers 115 HP. It’s ideal for

city driving and cruising speed on-route trips.

During the test-drive it reached a top speed of 174 kph, and accelerated from 0 to 100 kph in 11.6

seconds. The five-speed manual transmission features a very specific selector. To travel 100

kilometres consumption is 6 litres (at an avg. speed of 100kph); 8.5 litres (at 130 kph), and 9.4 litres in

the city.

The “Exclusive” version is the most equipped one, plus the “My Way” pack adds some items such as

satellite navigation and airbags.

The features are more than correct as it incorporates some elements that seek to make the difference

within the segment, especially in terms of comfort and technology.

The panoramic windshield called Zenith (standard or optional depending on version) is one of them.

We should also mention the built-in browser. As for safety, all versions have ABS and dual airbags

plus side airbags as it was the case of the version I tested.

Other distinctive features of the “Exclusive” version are: automatic climate control, cruise control,

dimming rearview mirror, rain and light sensors, among others.

Likewise, this model is built following specific environmental care standards, since among other things

it uses materials such as polypropylene and wood waste, thus providing it a recyclability rate of around

90 percent.

The steering is light and quick, with a good overall feeling. Compared to its predecessor, it provides a

better dynamic behaviour. It stands by itself on-route, where it takes curves greatly.

The new C3 range starts with a retail price of 96,000 pesos, while the C3 Exclusive My Way pack is

the most expensive version with a suggested promotional price of 122,500 pesos (original list price is

125,800 pesos). It has a two-year warranty.

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Texto N° 7 Home » Scientific American Magazine » May 2010

Revolutionary Rail: High-Speed Rail Plan Will Bring Fast

Trains to the U.S.

The next wave of high-speed rail lines should do away with the rails altogether, say proponents of magnetic levitation technology By Stuart F. Brown | May 4, 2010 |

FAST LANE: California's planned high-speed line, shown here

in an artist's impression, will likely be the first true high-speed

line to be built in the U.S. With more than $11 billion in financing

secured, construction could begin as early as next year. Image:

COURSETY OF CALIFORNIA HIGH-SPEED RAIL AUTHORITY

America is an absurdly backward country when it

comes to passenger trains. As anyone who has

visited Europe, Japan or Shanghai knows, trains

that travel at nearly 200 miles per hour have

become integral to the economies of many

countries. With its celebrated Tokaido Shinkansen

bullet trains, Central Japan Railway has for the past five decades carried billions of

passengers between Tokyo and Osaka in half the time it would take to fly. A new

Madrid-to-Barcelona express train runs at an average speed of 150 miles per hour;

since its inception two years ago, airline traffic between the two cities has dropped by

40 percent. In contrast, Amtrak’s showcase Acela train connecting Boston to

Washington, D.C., averages just 70 mph. That figure is so low because many sections

of the Acela’s tracks cannot safely support high speeds, even though the train itself is

capable of sprints above 150 mph. Think of it as a Ferrari sputtering down a rutted

country lane.

There has been a recent push to change all this. Earlier this year the Department of

Transportation announced the recipients of $8 billion in stimulus funding designed

to spread high-speed rail across the U.S. The 2010 federal budget requests an

additional $1 billion in rail construction funds in each of the next five years. And in

2008 California voters approved a $9-billion bond measure to initiate an ambitious

high-speed rail network that would connect Los Angeles to San Francisco and,

eventually, Sacramento and San Diego.

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Levitation System

Electronically controlled support magnets located on both sides along the entire length of the vehicle pull the vehicle up to the ferromagnetic stator packs mounted to the underside of the guideway.

Guidance magnets located on both sides along the entire length of the vehicle keep the vehicle laterally on the track. Electronic systems guarantee that the clearance remains constant (nominally 10 mm). To hover, the Transrapid requires less power than its air conditioning equipment. The levitation system is supplied from on-board batteries and thus independent of the propulsion system. The vehicle is capable of hovering up to one hour without external energy. While travelling, the on-board batteries are recharged by linear generators integrated into the support magnets.

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Texto N° 8

January 16, 2007

What is the origin of zero?

How did we indicate nothingness before zero?

Robert Kaplan, author of The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of Zero and

former professor of mathematics at Harvard University, provides this answer:

The first evidence we have of zero is from the Sumerian culture in Mesopotamia,

some 5,000 years ago. There, a slanted double wedge was inserted between

cuneiform symbols for numbers, written positionally, to indicate the absence of a

number in a place (as we would write 102, the '0' indicating no digit in the tens

column).

Image: KRISTEN MCQUILLIN

TIMELINE shows the development

of zero throughout the world. The first

recorded zero appeared in

Mesopotamia around 3 B.C. The

Mayans invented it independently

circa 4 A.D. It was later devised in

India in the mid-fifth century, spread

to Cambodia near the end of the

seventh century, and into China and the Islamic countries at the end of the eighth. Zero reached

western Europe in the 12th century. The symbol changed over time as positional notation

(for which zero was crucial), made its way to the Babylonian empire and from there to

India, via the Greeks (in whose own culture zero made a late and only occasional

appearance; the Romans had no trace of it at all). Arab merchants brought the

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zero they found in India to the West. After many

adventures and much opposition, the symbol we use was

accepted and the concept flourished, as zero took on

much more than a positional meaning. Since then, it has

played avital role in mathematizing the world.

The mathematical zero and the philosophical notion of

nothingness are related but are not the same.

Nothingness plays a central role very early on in Indian

thought (there called sunya), and we find speculation in

virtually all cosmogonical myths about what must have

preceded the world's creation. So in the Bible's book of

Genesis (1:2): "And the earth was without form, and

void."

But our inability to conceive of such a void is well

captured in the book of Job, who cannot reply when God

asks him (Job 38:4): "Where wast thou when I laid the

foundations of the earth? Declare, if thou hast

understanding." Our own era's physical theories about

the big bang cannot quite reach back to an ultimate

beginning from nothing--although in mathematics we

can generate all numbers from the empty set.

Nothingness as the state out of which alone we can freely

make our own natures lies at the heart of existentialism,

which flourished in the mid-20th century.

Answer originally posted Feb. 28, 2000.

Writing Numbers

The Babylonians displayed zero with two angled wedges (middle).

The Mayans used an eyelike character [top left] to denote zero.

The Chinese started writing the open circle we now use for zero.

The Hindus depicted zero as a dot.

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Texto N° 9

Science News

Artificial Intelligence for Improving Data Processing

Artificial Intelligence offers many possibilities for developing data processing systems which are more precise and robust.

Within this framework, five leading scientists presented the latest advances in their research work on different aspects of AI. The speakers tackled issues ranging from the more theoretical such as algorithms capable of solving combinatorial problems to robots that can reason about emotions, systems that use vision to monitor activities, and automated players that learn how to win in a given situation. "Inviting speakers from groups of references allows us to offer a panoramic view of the main problems and the techniques open in the area, including advances in video and multi-sensor systems, task planning, automated learning, games, and artificial consciousness or reasoning," the experts noted.

The participants from the AVIRES (The Artificial Vision and Real Time Systems) research group at the University of Udine gave a seminar on the introduction of data fusion techniques and distributed artificial vision. In particular, they dealt with automated surveillance systems with visual sensor networks, from basic techniques for image processing and object recognition to Bayesian reasoning for understanding activities and automated learning and data fusion to make high performance system. Dr. Simon Lucas, professor at the Essex University and editor in chief of IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games and a researcher focusing on the application of AI techniques on games, presented the latest trends in generation algorithms for game strategies. During his presentation, he pointed out the strength of UC3M in this area, citing its victory in two of the competitions held at the international level during the most recent edition of the Conference on Computational Intelligence and Games.

Science Daily (Apr. 11, 2011) —

Artificial Intelligence offers many possibilities for developing data processing systems which are more precise and robust. That is one of the main conclusions drawn from an international encounter of experts in this scientific area, recently held at Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M).

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In addition, Enrico Giunchiglia, professor at the University of Genoa and former president of the Council of the International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling (ICAPS), described the most recent work in the area of logic satisfaction, which is rapidly growing due to its applications in circuit design and in task planning

Artificial Intelligence (IA) is as old as computer science and has generated ideas, techniques and applications that permit it to solve difficult problems. The field is very active and offers solutions to very diverse sectors. The number of industrial applications that have an AI technique is very high, and from the scientific point of view, there are many specialized journals and congresses. Furthermore, new lines of research are constantly being open and there is a still great room for improvement in knowledge transfer between researchers and industry. These are some of the main ideas gathered at the 4th International Seminar on New Issues on Artificial Intelligence), organized by the SCALAB group in the UC3M Computer Engineering Department at the Leganés campus of this Madrid university.

The future of Artificial Intelligence

This seminar also included a talk on the promising future of AI. "The tremendous surge in the number of devices capable of capturing and processing information, together with the growth of the computing capacity and the advances in algorithms enormously boost the possibilities for practical application," the researchers from the SCALAB group pointed out. Among them we can cite the construction of computer programs that make life easier, which take decisions in complex environments or which allow problems to be solved in environments which are difficult to access for people," they noted. From the point of view of these research trends, more and more emphasis is being placed on developing systems capable of learning and demonstrating intelligent behavior without being tied to replicating a human model.

AI will allow advances in the development of systems capable of automatically understanding a situation and its context with the use of sensor data and information systems as well as establishing plans of action, from support applications to decision making within dynamic situations. According to the researchers, this is due to the rapid advances and the availability of sensor technology which provides a continuous flow of data about the environment, information that must be dealt with appropriately in a node of data fusion and information. Likewise, the development of sophisticated techniques for task planning allow plans of action to be composed, executed, checked for correct execution, and rectified in case of some failure, and finally to learn from mistakes made.

This technology has allowed a wide range of applications such as integrated systems for surveillance, monitoring and detecting anomalies, activity recognition, teleassistance systems, transport logistic planning, etc. According to Antonio Chella, Full Professor at the University of Palermo and expert in Artificial Consciousness, the future of AI will imply discovering a new meaning of the word "intelligence." Until now, it has been equated with automated reasoning in software systems, but in the future AI will tackle more daring concepts such as the incarnation of intelligence in robots, as well as emotions, and above all consciousness.

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Texto N° 10

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Texto N° 11

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Texto N° 12

University Physics with Modern Physics

Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman

Description

University Physics with Modern Physics, Twelfth Edition continues an unmatched history of innovation

and careful execution that was established by the bestselling Eleventh Edition. Assimilating the best

ideas from education research, this new edition provides enhanced problem-solving instruction,

pioneering visual and conceptual pedagogy, the first systematically enhanced problems, and the most

pedagogically proven and widely used homework and tutorial system available.

Using Young & Freedman's research-based ISEE (Identify, Set Up, Execute, Evaluate)

problem-solving strategy, students develop the physical intuition and problem-solving skills

required to tackle the text's extensive high-quality problem sets, which have been developed

and refined over the past five decades. Incorporating proven techniques from educational

research that have been shown to improve student learning, the figures have been

streamlined in color and detail to focus on the key physics and integrate 'chalkboard-style'

guiding commentary. Critically acclaimed ‘visual’ chapter summaries help students to

consolidate their understanding by presenting each concept in words, math, and figures.

Renowned for its superior problems, the Twelfth Edition goes further. Unprecedented

analysis of national student metadata has allowed every problem to be systematically

enhanced for educational effectiveness, and to ensure problem sets of ideal topic coverage,

balance of qualitative and quantitative problems, and range of difficulty and duration.

If a professor adopts MasteringPhysicsTM, every new copy of the text includes access to it —

the most widely used, educationally proven, and technically advanced tutorial and homework

system in the world. Uniquely able to tutor each student individually with feedback specific to

their errors and simpler subproblems upon demand, MasteringPhysics™ now incorporates free-

hand graphs, free-body diagrams, ray-tracing diagrams, even ranking-task activities.

MasteringPhysics™ provides all the problems from the text as well as tutorials specific to the

Problem-Solving Strategies and Test Your Understanding questions in each chapter.

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Contents:

MECHANICS

� Units, Physical Quantities, and Vectors � Motion Along a Straight Line � Motion in Two or Three Dimensions � Newton's Laws of Motion � Applying Newton's Laws � Work and Kinetic Energy � Potential Energy and Energy Conservation � Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions � Rotation of Rigid Bodies � Dynamics of Rotational Motion � Equilibrium and Elasticity � Fluid Mechanics � Gravitation � Periodic Motion

WAVES/ACOUSTICS

� Mechanical Waves � Sound and Hearing

THERMODYNAMICS

� Temperature and Heat � Thermal Properties of Matter � The First Law of Thermodynamics � The Second Law of Thermodynamics

ELECTROMAGNETISM

� Electric Charge and Electric Field � Gauss's Law � Electric Potential � Capacitance and Dielectrics � Current, Resistance, and Electromotive Force � Direct-Current Circuits � Magnetic Field and Magnetic Forces � Sources of Magnetic Field � Electromagnetic Induction � Inductance � Alternating Current � Electromagnetic Waves

OPTICS

� The Nature and Propagation of Light � Geometric Optics and Optical Instruments � Interference � Diffraction

http://www.amazon.co.uk/University-Physics-Modern-Hugh-Young/dp/080532187X

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Texto Nº 13

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Texto Nº 14

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Texto N° 15

Fire Safety Regulations, Instructions, and Procedures Fire: 9-11

University Police: 617-495-1212

Regulations

A student who violates any of the fire safety regulations set forth Chapter 5 or the fire emergency procedures below, including those pertaining to the abuse of fire alarm, smoke detector, or fire extinguisher systems, will be subject to disciplinary action, including requirement to withdraw.

Fire Emergency Procedures

Any smoke detector in a stairwell or corridor can initiate a general alarm when a predetermined concentration of smoke reaches it. This alarm has the same sound as the alarms initiated manually and is a signal to leave the building. Each room or suite is typically equipped with a 110-volt AC smoke detector. If activated, the alarm sounds in that room only. If there is a fire, go to the nearest exit, pull the fire alarm at the pull station, and leave the building.

If You Find a Fire

1. Sound the alarm by activating the nearest fire alarm pull station and call the Fire Department at 911 from a safe location. You can also call 617-495-5560, the University Operations Center, who will notify the Fire Department, HUPD, a University fire safety mechanic, the building manager, and other key personnel.

2. Alert your neighbors only if you can do so without delaying your exit. 3. Leave the building immediately, close doors behind you as you exit the building and

proceed to the designated emergency evacuation meeting location. 4. If you have information on how the fire started or how the alarm was activated, report

it to the Fire Department.

Do not try to put out the fire. Use your common sense. Your safety is more important than property.

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If the Alarm Sounds

Do not delay evacuation or assume that this is a false alarm. Immediately begin to exit the building.

1. Feel the door. If it is hot, do not open it. Stay in your room. Put a towel or blanket (preferably wet) under the door to keep the smoke out. If your telephone works, call the Cambridge Fire Department at 911. Also call the Harvard University Police Department at 617-495-1212 to let them know where you are. Attract attention to yourself. Hang a sheet or something out the window.

If the door is not hot, open it slowly. If smoke and heat fill the hall, close the door, stay in your room, and call for help.

If you can safely leave your room, take your key and close your door behind you. Exit by the nearest clear exit stairway. Do not use the elevators – it may fail in a fire or be automatically recalled to the ground floor. Failure to leave when an alarm sounds, unless there are safety reasons for not doing so, is a punishable offense.

1. If you encounter smoke on your way out, stay low and crawl if necessary. You are more apt to find breathable air close to the floor. Cover your nose and mouth with a wet towel or wet handkerchief, if possible.

2. So that you may be accounted for, go to the predetermined emergency evacuation meeting location. Do not attempt to reenter the building until the fire department gives permission to do so.

3. Do not attempt to reenter the building until the fire department gives permission to do so.

Fire Safety Instructions

1. Do not overload wiring. Appliances should be plugged into wall outlets, never connected to light sockets. Extension cords should be Underwriters Laboratories or National Electric Code approved cords in good condition and of proper rating. Do not splice extension cords; never run them through doorways or partitions, or cover them with rugs.

2. Use fireproof draperies. Limit the number of flammable decorations and keep your room neat and clean.

3. The use of candles and other sources of open flame are prohibited in House and dormitory rooms. Menorahs may be lit only in House common areas and only with the approval of the House Master. They must always be attended.

4. It is illegal to use fireplaces, as they can present a safety hazard to all occupants. 5. Cooking equipment is prohibited. The City of Cambridge forbids cooking in any room

or apartment not equipped with permanent cooking facilities. 6. Know emergency escape routes: fire doors, window exits, and fire escapes. Never

block emergency escape routes or block open or prop open any fire doors. Emergency exit doors within rooms/suites shall not be blocked on either side by furniture or obstructions of any kind.

7. Student participation in annual fire drills is mandatory.

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8. If you have information on the cause of a fire alarm activation, report information to tutors, House Masters, or the Fire Department representatives.

For further information, contact the Department of Environmental Health and Safety, 46 Blackstone Street, Cambridge, 617-495-2060, or visit their fire safety website.

Carbon Monoxide

Select rooms may be equipped with carbon monoxide detectors. Carbon monoxide (CO) is an invisible, odorless, tasteless and non-irritating gas created when fuels (e.g. gasoline, propane, natural gas, oil, and wood) are burned. Improperly vented appliances used for heating and cooking can be sources of carbon monoxide. The State of Massachusetts requires residential buildings with carbon monoxide-generating appliances to be equipped with carbon monoxide detection and alarms.

Common symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are headaches, runny nose, sore eyes, and are often described as "flu-like symptoms." Higher level exposure symptoms may include dizziness, drowsiness, and vomiting. Extreme exposure to carbon monoxide can result in unconsciousness or death.

Carbon Monoxide Alarm Instructions

The carbon monoxide alarm will sound four quick "chirps" every few seconds, indicating that carbon monoxide is present.

1. Everyone in the immediate area of the alarm must immediately move to fresh air outdoors. If anyone is experiencing symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning, call 911 or Harvard University Police Department, 617-495-1212.

2. If there are no symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning, call the University Operations Center, 617-495-5560, for instructions and assistance. Remain outside until directed by the Police or Fire Department that it is safe to re-enter the building.

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Texto N° 16

14 February 2011 By Ellie Zolfagharifard

Light reading: visible light communications

The human desire for light was one of the reasons that caveman became engineer. From the very first camp fires to the oil-filled lamp and electric torch, man-made light has led the development of the modern world.

The objective has always been a simple one: to provide illumination in areas that the Sun can’t reach. We’ve been extremely successful in this, with more and more places on Earth touched by artificial light each day. The technology has showcased our best innovations and given us the ability to see things that would otherwise be hidden.

But what if light could do more than just illuminate? What if it could also send streams of data? Traffic lights, television sets, car headlights, billboards and lamps might all suddenly become far

more important in our daily lives. We could receive maps from a street light, get news alerts from lamps and download music from electronic posters.

It may sound like a futuristic concept, but a small community of researchers is already working on ways to make this a reality. They believe that an emerging area of technology known as Visible Light Communications (VLC), which uses the rapid flickering of advanced light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to encode data, could open up new and exciting possibilities in the way we send and receive information.

The work has been pioneered in Japan by the Visible Light Communications Consortium (VLCC). On the back of its research, the US has invested $18.5m (£11.5m) in the development of VLC and the Chinese government is also thought to have put aside large sums to integrate it into aircraft. In Europe, Oxford and Edinburgh universities are involved in research, along with firms such as France Telecom and Siemens.

What has really excited researchers are the advantages of VLC over other forms of wireless communication. VLC doesn’t interfere with radio-frequency (RF) electronics, making it suitable for use in hospitals and aircraft, and it has no associated health concerns. It’s also environmentally friendly, with its use of existing infrastructure reducing costs and allowing for the future expansion of the network.

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Prof Zabih Ghassemlooy, associate dean for research at Northumbria University, believes that safety is a major driver. ’We’re now seeing people develop allergies to radiation from radio waves. Perhaps because of this, society will be reluctant to use them - light under moderate power is the way forward. Nature has provided us with this for billions of years and we

should be making the most of it.’

The main catalyst behind VLC has been improvements in the performance of LEDs - which are durable, efficient and bright, and are fast replacing incandescent lamps. Unlike normal light bulbs, LEDs respond quickly to ’on’ and ’off’ signals. By flickering an LED light on and off in a specific pattern, data can be sent at speeds that are undetectable to the human eye.

Into the deep: VLC has promise for subsea Communications

The most basic form of white LEDs are made up of a bluish to ultraviolet LED surrounded by a yellow phosphor, which emits white light when stimulated. On average, these LEDs can achieve data rates of up to 40Mb/sec. Newer forms of LEDs, known as RGBs (red, green and blue), have three separate LEDs that, when lit at the same time, emit a light that is perceived to be white. As these involve no delay in stimulating a phosphor, data rates in RGBs can reach up to 100Mb/sec.

But it doesn’t stop there. Resonant-cavity LEDs (RCLEDs), which are similar to RGB LEDs and are fitted with reflectors for spectral clarity, can now work at even higher frequencies. Last year, Siemens and Berlin’s Heinrich Hertz Institute achieved a data-transfer rate of 500Mb/sec with a white LED, beating their earlier record of 200Mb/sec. As LED technology improves with each year, VLC is coming closer to reality and engineers are now turning their attention to its potential applications.

’In my view, there are two basic areas of application for VLC,’ said Dr Dominic O’Brien from Oxford University. ’There is what you might call the “augmenting existing infrastructure” applications - using the solid-state lighting already present and adding a functionality - and applications where doing it in the visible region has an advantage in terms of security and performance.’

“Edison researched incandescent lamps and it changed the world – VLC will do the same”

One of the most promising applications is in car-to-car communication. If the headlights on a car could communicate with the tail lights of the car ahead, VLC collision-avoidance technology would be hugely significant in the automotive industry. In the same way, traffic lights could send detailed information of congestion up ahead directly to a vehicle. But, to be successful, VLC has to prove itself against competing technologies of lidar, radar and RF, as well as to overcome some of its own technical challenges.

’The problem with using VLC outdoors is dealing with atmospheric conditions,’ explained Ghassemlooy. ’Fog, smoke and temperature variation are major difficulties. We’re looking at efficient modulation and coding schemes to see how we can push the beam through the fog

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without increasing power to the light source… I think we’re getting closer to getting a solution every day.’

As well as problems with weather, VLC needs line-of-sight access to send data, restricting areas where it can operate. But O’Brien points out that its directional approach can also prove to be an asset. VLC is far more secure than RF signals, which move in many directions and can easily be intercepted. In military operations where RF-based communications are restricted during troop movements, VLC could be a viable alternative. For instance, it could be used to help securely pass information down a convoy of tanks and other military vehicles.

Texto N° 17

BUILDING BLOCKS

Sunday, February 14, 2010

What is the cost of our built environment?

Building and engineering professionals have over the last 150 years become proficient at determining costs of projects that clients have desired be built. Whether it be a hydro-electric dam, a power station, bridge or chemical manufacturing plant, based on detailed designs such projects have been broken down into small elements and the cost determined. Over the last few years the consciousness of the need to consider sustainability in our activities has reached new heights, as environmental ethics have been incorporated within most professionals’ codes of ethics, and sustainability is becoming important to many individuals. This increased awareness has taken place contemporaneously with a reduction in professional input towards the construction of buildings, along with a New Zealand Building Act which requires a specified intended life of buildings to be at least 50 years (and similar in some other countries). This specified intended life could be seen as incompatible with the notion of sustainability, considering that many existing buildings in other countries are centuries old.

On the face of it, there appear to be contradictions in this New Zealand Building Act (arguably) minimal specified intended life requirement of buildings due to many

competing issues in the present highly commercial world.

The term sustainability may conjure up many different meanings to different people. It generally implies, however, that something should last for as long as possible so that it does not become prematurely obsolete. This should imply a positive impact on the mortality of a country’s building stock, so that buildings last longer before they have to be maintained and replaced. Since the actions of each individual affect the earth in some way, it must be

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kept in mind that building activities must not be considered in isolation. With in excess of 60,000 chemicals in common use and pollution paralleling technologic advances, increased pollution (that is anti-sustainable practices) is related to “the production and use of energy, the production and use of industrial chemicals …” (Plaa, 1998). The production of building materials is intrinsically linked with these processes.

Reflecting on the UK building scene, Addleson (1977) stated that shortcomings in buildings owing to a proliferation of new materials and building techniques became prevalent in “the post-war period”. He questioned “the significance of the sixty-year economic life of buildings”, suggesting that they could be beyond their economic life before then. Does the concept of “expected life of buildings” sit well with society’s current expectations relating to sustainability? The proven ability of New Zealand houses to exceed a service life of 140 years seems to throw into serious question why such a relatively short specified intended life is allowed under the Building Act (Johnstone, 1999). From the writer’s experience in the building industry, it has become apparent that this situation is leading to planned obsolescence, with many developers intent on meeting the minimum statutory requirements (or even less, if they can get away with it), for maximum profit, without considering any other adverse matters relating to environmental issues or other social issues.

The term sustainability usually implies in a general sense the wise use of resources. This can have many different meanings and interpretations. Not enough consideration is given to the energy embodied in existing buildings; instead, there is too much emphasis on new development of housing (Seip, 1979). Few buildings are ever demolished as a result of failure of their structural system. Johnstone (1994b) advised that “Departures of dwellings from a housing stock are the end result of an economic process and the potential physical life of most dwellings is not realised”.

The lowest first cost is also a driver for developers in order to maximise profits at the expense of appropriate life cycle considerations.

The question of the ethics of so-called sustainability was raised by Buckeridge and Tapp (1999). They questioned society’s morals in emphasising the words rather than effectively dealing with the issues, and suggested that the road towards sustainability is even being thwarted. This feeling appears to be borne out from the preceding discussion. According to The Institution of Structural Engineers (1999), “Sustainable development is for all cultures, climates and geographical locations and for all disciplines”. This is an interesting concept considering that most “developed” countries plundered their forests, sometimes, centuries ago, and when China, for instance, representing a quarter of the world’s population, is at the very early stages of its “modernisation” programme. Challenges like these are yet to be addressed by anyone (Walls, 2000).

Given the devastating effects of the recent earthquake in Haiti why should they even think about “sustainability”?

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The sustainability of buildings is strongly linked with durability, a notion which is not even covered by building codes in many countries. In many areas the path towards sustainability does in fact appear as being thwarted. “During the last 50 years, buildings in general, and city buildings in particular, have become significantly less, not more, durable and much more resource consumptive” (Storey and Baird, 1998). Most of this derives from expedient practices motivated by short-term commercial (monetary) gains.

Porteous (1992) advised that in New Zealand there is no nationwide system of investigating and recording events of building failure. This is likely to apply to all countries. It is unlikely also that any country has compiled a database of age-specific dwelling losses (Johnstone, 1994a). In order to practise sustainable living in a serious way, it is important that all the information tools available are implemented. Without those two knowledge databases in place on an ongoing basis, and without dealing with the issues covered in this posting, then it can only be said that society is paying lip service to the notion of sustainability.

POSTED BY DR KELVIN WALLS AT 2:42 PM 0 COMMENTS

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DR KELVIN WALLS

Building Code Consultants Ltd was formed in 1998 by Dr Kelvin Walls after

considerable experience in the engineering and building industry. Our

company offers services in a range of areas, including the Building Act and

Code, Construction Contracts Act, Alternative Solutions, unauthorised

building work, due diligence, failure investigation, maintenance of buildings,

construction management, dispute resolution, expert evidence, litigation &

technical opinions. We also cover the more traditional areas of drainage,

feasibility concepts, civil & structural engineering. We have a particular

interest in the chronic health effects of the built environment. It is an area not

well recognised by the building/engineering industry, and has also received

little attention to date by public health practitioners. It is therefore an area

with considerable scope for attention by a multi-disciplinary range of people,

including engineers, technologists and epidemiologists, particularly so

considering the adaptations likely to be made due to climate change.

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Texto N° 18

Science Education

Privacy and Security Notice

| Return to the Electricity and Magnetism Index Page |

How do I make an electromagnet?

It is fairly easy to build an electromagnet. All you need to do is wrap some insulated copper wire around an iron core. If you attach a battery to the wire, an electric current will begin to flow and the iron core will become magnetized. When the battery is disconnected, the iron core will lose its magnetism. Follow these steps if you like to build the electromagnet described in our Magnets and Electromagnets experiment:

Step 1 - Gather the Materials

To build the electromagnet described in our Magnets and Electromagnets experiment, you

will need:

One iron nail fifteen centimeters (6 in) long

Three meters (10 ft) of 22 gauge insulated, stranded copper wire

One or more D-cell batteries

A pair of wire strippers

Step 2 - Remove some Insulation

Some of the copper wire needs to be exposed so that the battery can make a good electrical connection. Use a pair of wire strippers to remove a few centimeters of insulation from each end of the wire.

Step 3 - Wrap the Wire around the Nail

Neatly wrap the wire around the nail. The more wire you wrap around the nail, the stronger your electromagnet will be. Make certain that you leave enough of the wire unwound so that you can attach the battery.

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When you wrap the wire around the nail, make certain that you wrap the wire all in one direction. You need to do this because the direction of a magnet field depends on the direction of the electric current creating it. The movement of electric charges creates a magnetic field. If you could see the magnetic field around a wire that has electricity flowing through it, it would look like a series of circles around the wire. If an electric current is flowing directly towards you, the magnetic field created by it circles around the wire in a counter-clockwise direction. If the direction of the electric current is reversed, the magnetic field reverses also and circles the wire in a clockwise direction. If you wrap some of the wire around the nail in one direction and some of the wire in the other direction, the magnetic fields from the different sections fight each other and cancel out, reducing the strength of your magnet.

Step 4 - Connect the Battery

Attach one end of the wire to the positive terminal of the battery and the other end of the wire to the negative terminal of the battery. If all has gone well, your electromagnet is now working!

Don't worry about which end of the wire you attach to the positive terminal of the battery and which one you attach to the negative terminal. Your magnet will work just as well either way. What will change is your magnet's polarity. One end of your magnet will be its north pole and the other end will be its south pole. Reversing the way the battery is connected will reverse the poles of your electromagnet.

Hints to Make Your Electromagnet Stronger

The more turns of wire your magnet has, the better. Keep in mind that the further the wire is from the core, the less effective it will be.

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The more current passes through the wire, the better. Caution! Too much current can be dangerous! As electricity passes through a wire, some energy is lost as heat. The more current that flows through a wire, the more heat is generated. If you double the current passing through a wire, the heat generated will increase 4 times! If you triple the current passing through a wire, the heat generated will increase 9 times! Things can quickly become too hot to handle.

Try experimenting with different cores. A thicker core might make a more powerful magnet. Just make certain that the material you choose can be magnetized. You can test your core with a permanent magnet. If a permanent magnet is not attracted to your core, it will not make a good electromagnet. An aluminum bar, for example, is not a good choice for your magnet's core.

This page is maintained by Steve Gagnon.

Texto N° 19

University Physics with Modern Physics, Twelfth Edition

Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman

C H A P T E R 1 - UNITS, PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, AND VECTORS

The study of physics is important because physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines make use of the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics.

The study of physics is also an adventure. You will find it challenging, sometimes frustrating, occasionally painful, and often richly rewarding and satisfying. It will appeal to your sense of beauty as well as to your rational intelligence. If you’ve ever wondered why the sky is blue, how radio waves can travel through empty space, or how a satellite stays in orbit, you can find the answers by using fundamental physics. Above all, you will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves.

? Being able to predict the

path of a hurricane is essential for minimizing the damage it does to lives and property. If a hurricane is moving at 20 km/h in a direction 53° north of east, how far north does the hurricane move in one h?

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In this opening chapter, we’ll go over some important preliminaries that we’ll need throughout our study. We’ll discuss the nature of physical theory and the use of idealized models to represent physical systems. We’ll introduce the systems of units used to describe physical quantities and discuss ways to describe the accuracy of a number. We’ll look at examples of problems for which we can’t (or don’t want to) find a precise answer, but for which rough estimates can be useful and interesting. Finally, we’ll study several aspects of vectors and vector algebra. Vectors will be needed throughout our study of physics to describe and analyze physical quantities, such as velocity and force, that have direction as well as magnitude.

1.1 The Nature of Physics

Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.

CAUTION: The meaning of the word “theory”. Calling an idea a theory does not mean that it’s just a random thought or an unproven concept. Rather, a theory is an explanation of natural phenomena based on observation and accepted fundamental principles. An example is the well-established theory of biological evolution, which is the result of extensive research and observation by generations of biologists.

The development of physical theory requires creativity at every stage. The physicist has to learn to ask appropriate questions, design experiments to try to answer the questions, and draw appropriate conclusions from the results. Figure 1.1 shows two famous experimental facilities.

Legend has it that Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) dropped light and heavy objects from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa (Fig. 1.1a) to find out whether their rates of fall were the same or different. Galileo recognized that only experimental investigation could answer this question. From examining the results of his experiments (which were actually much more sophisticated than in the legend), he made the inductive leap to the principle, or theory, that the acceleration of a falling body is independent of its weight.

The development of physical theories such as Galileo’s is always a two-way process that starts and ends with observations or experiments. This development often takes an indirect path, with blind alleys, wrong guesses, and the discarding of unsuccessful theories in favor of more promising ones. Physics is not simply a collection of facts and principles; it is also the process by which we arrive at general principles that describe how the physical universe behaves.

No theory is ever regarded as the final or ultimate truth. The possibility always exists that new observations will require that a theory be revised or discarded. It is in the nature of physical theory that we can disprove a theory by finding

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behaviour that is inconsistent with it, but we can never prove that a theory is always correct.

Getting back to Galileo, suppose we drop a feather and a cannonball. They certainly do not fall at the same rate. This does not mean that Galileo was wrong; it means that his theory was incomplete. If we drop the feather and the cannonball in a vacuum to eliminate the effects of the air, then they do fall at the same rate. Galileo’s theory has a range of validity: It applies only to objects for which the force exerted by the air (due to air resistance and buoyancy) is much less than the weight. Objects like feathers or parachutes are clearly outside this range.

Every physical theory has a range of validity outside of which it is not applicable. Often a new development in physics extends a principle’s range of validity. Galileo’s analysis of falling bodies was greatly extended half a century later by Newton’s laws of motion and law of gravitation.

1.2 Solving Physics Problems

At some point in their studies, almost all physics students find themselves thinking, “I understand the concepts, but I just can’t solve the problems.” But in physics, truly understanding a concept or principle is the same thing as being able to apply it to a variety of practical problems. Learning how to solve problems is absolutely essential; you don’t know physics unless you can do physics.

How do you learn to solve physics problems? In every chapter of this book you will find Problem-Solving Strategies that offer techniques for setting up and solving problems efficiently and accurately. Following each Problem-Solving Strategy are one or more worked Examples that show these techniques in action. (The Problem-Solving Strategies will also steer you away from some incorrect techniques that you may be tempted to use.) You’ll also find additional examples that aren’t associated with a particular Problem-Solving Strategy. Study these strategies and examples carefully, and work through each example for yourself on a piece of paper.

Different techniques are useful for solving different kinds of physics problems, which is why this book offers dozens of Problem-Solving Strategies. No matter what kind of problem you’re dealing with, however, there are certain key steps that you’ll always follow. (These same steps are equally useful for problems in math, engineering, chemistry, and many other fields.) In this book we’ve organized these steps into four stages of solving a problem.

All of the Problem-Solving Strategies and Examples in this book will follow these four steps. (In some cases we will combine the first two or three steps.) We encourage you to follow these same steps when you solve problems yourself. You may find it useful to remember the acronym I SEE —short for Identify, Set up, Execute, and Evaluate.

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Problem-Solving Strategy

Solving Physics Problems

IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: First, decide which physics ideas are relevant to the problem. Although this step doesn’t involve any calculations, it’s sometimes the most challenging part of solving the problem. Don’t skip over this step, though; choosing the wrong approach at the beginning can make the problem more difficult than it has to be, or even lead you to an incorrect answer.

At this stage you must also identify the target variable of the problem—that is, the quantity whose value you’re trying to find. It could be the speed at which a projectile hits the ground, the intensity of a sound made by a siren, or the size of an image made by a lens. (Sometimes the goal will be to find a mathematical expression rather than a numerical value. Sometimes, too, the problem will have more than one target variable.) The target variable is the goal of the problem-solving process; don’t lose sight of this goal as you work through the solution.

SET UP the problem: Based on the concepts you selected in the Identify step, choose the equations that you’ll use to solve the problem and decide how you’ll use them. If appropriate, draw a sketch of the situation described in the problem.

EXECUTE the solution: In this step, you “do the math.” Before you launch into a flurry of calculations, make a list of all known and unknown quantities, and note which are the target variable or variables. Then solve the equations for the unknowns.

EVALUATE your answer: The goal of physics problem solving isn’t just to get a number or a formula; it’s to achieve better understanding. That means you must examine your answer to see what it’s telling you. Be sure to ask yourself, “Does this answer make sense?” If your target variable was the radius of the earth and your answer is 6.38 centimeters (or if your answer is a negative number!), something went wrong in your problem-solving process. Go back and check your work, and revise your solution as necessary.

Idealized Models

In everyday conversation we use the word “model” to mean either a small-scale replica, such as a model railroad, or a person who displays articles of clothing. In physics a model is a simplified version of a physical system that would be too complicated to analyze in full detail.

For example, suppose we want to analyze the motion of a thrown baseball (Fig. 1.2a). How complicated is this problem? The ball is not a perfect sphere (it has raised seams), and it spins as it moves through the air. Wind and air resistance influence its motion, the ball’s weight varies a little as its distance from the center of the earth changes, and so on. If we try to include all these things, the analysis gets hopelessly complicated. Instead, we invent a simplified version of

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the problem. We neglect the size and shape of the ball by representing it as a point object, or particle. We neglect air resistance by making the ball move in a vacuum, and we make the weight constant. Now we have a problem that is simple enough to deal with (Fig. 1.2b). We will analyze this model in detail in Chapter 3.

To make an idealized model, we have to overlook quite a few minor effects to concentrate on the most important features of the system. Of course, we have to be careful not to neglect too much. If we ignore the effects of gravity completely, then our model predicts that when we throw the ball up, it will go in a straight line and disappear into space. We need to use some judgment and creativity to construct a model that simplifies a problem enough to make it manageable, yet keeps its essential features.

When we use a model to predict how a system will behave, the validity of our predictions is limited by the validity of the model. For example, Galileo’s prediction about falling bodies (see Section 1.1) corresponds to an idealized model that does not include the effects of air resistance. This model works fairly well for a dropped cannonball, but not so well for a feather.

When we apply physical principles to complex systems in physical science and technology, we always use idealized models, and we have to be aware of the assumptions we are making. In fact, the principles of physics themselves are stated in terms of idealized models; we speak about point masses, rigid bodies, ideal insulators, and so on. Idealized models play a crucial role throughout this book. Watch for them in discussions of physical theories and their applications to specific problems.

Standards and Units

As we learned, physics is an experimental science. Experiments require measurements, and we generally use numbers to describe the results of measurements. Any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon quantitatively is called a physical quantity. For example, two physical quantities that describe you are your weight and your height. Some physical quantities are so fundamental that we can define them only by describing how to measure them. Such a definition is called an operational definition. Two examples are measuring a distance by using a ruler and measuring a time interval by using a stopwatch. In other cases, we define a physical quantity by describing how to calculate it from other quantities that we can measure. Thus we might define the average speed of a moving object as the distance traveled (measured with a ruler) divided by the time of travel (measured with a stopwatch).

When we measure a quantity, we always compare it with some reference standard. When we say that a Porsche Carrera GT is 4.61 meters long, we mean that it is 4.61 times as long as a meter stick, which we define to be 1 meter long. Such a standard defines a unit of the quantity. The meter is a unit of distance, and the second is a unit of time. When we use a number to describe a physical

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quantity, we must always specify the unit that we are using; to describe a distance as simply “4.61” wouldn’t mean anything.

To make accurate, reliable measurements, we need units of measurement that do not change and that can be duplicated by observers in various locations. The system of units used by scientists and engineers around the world is commonly called “the metric system,” but since 1960 it has been known officially as the International System, or SI (the abbreviation for its French name, Système International). A list of all SI units is given in Appendix A, as are definitions of the most fundamental units.

The definitions of the basic units of the metric system have evolved over the years. When the metric system was established in 1791 by the French Academy of Sciences, the meter was defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator (Fig. 1.3). The second was defined as the time required for a pendulum one meter long to swing from one side to the other. These definitions were cumbersome and hard to duplicate precisely, and by international agreement they have been replaced with more refined definitions.

Time

From 1889 until 1967, the unit of time was defined as a certain fraction of the mean solar day, the average time between successive arrivals of the sun at its highest point in the sky. The present standard, adopted in 1967, is much more precise. It is based on an atomic clock, which uses the energy difference between the two lowest energy states of the cesium atom. When bombarded by microwaves of precisely the proper frequency, cesium atoms undergo a transition from one of these states to the other. One second (abbreviated s) is defined as the time required for 9,192,631,770 cycles of this microwave radiation.

Length

In 1960 an atomic standard for the meter was also established, using the wavelength of the orange-red light emitted by atoms of krypton in a glow discharge tube. Using this length standard, the speed of light in a vacuum was measured to be 299,792,458 m/s. In November 1983, the length standard was changed again so that the speed of light in a vacuum was defined to be precisely 299,792,458 m/s. The meter is defined to be consistent with this number and with the above definition of the second. Hence the new definition of the meter (abbreviated m) is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second. This provides a much more precise standard of length than the one based on a wavelength of light.

Mass

The standard of mass, the kilogram (abbreviated kg), is defined to be the mass of a particular cylinder of platinum–iridium alloy kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, near Paris (Fig. 1.4). An atomic standard of mass would be more fundamental, but at present we cannot measure masses on

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an atomic scale with as much accuracy as on a macroscopic scale. The gram (which is not a fundamental unit) is 0.001 kilogram.

Unit Prefixes

Once we have defined the fundamental units, it is easy to introduce larger and smaller units for the same physical quantities. In the metric system these other units are related to the fundamental units (or, in the case of mass, to the gram) by multiples of 10 or 1/10. Thus one kilometer (1 km) is 1000 meters, and one centimeter (1 cm) is 1/100 meter. We usually express multiples of 10 or 1/10 in exponential notation: 1000 = 103, 1/10000 = 10-3, and so on. With this notation, 1 km = 103 m and 1 cm = 10-2 m.

The names of the additional units are derived by adding a prefix to the name of the fundamental unit. For example, the prefix “kilo-,” abbreviated k, always means a unit larger by a factor of 1000; thus

1 kilometer = 1 km = 103 meters = 103 m

1 kilogram = 1 kg = 103 grams = 103 g

1 kilowatt = 1 kW = 103 watts = 103 W

A table on the inside back cover of this book lists the standard SI prefixes, with their meanings and abbreviations.

Texto N° 20

Automotive Fuel QualityAutomotive Fuel QualityAutomotive Fuel QualityAutomotive Fuel Quality

The new standards will not only make petrol, diesel and gasoil 'cleaner' but will also allow the introduction of vehicles and machinery that pollute less. A key measure is that, to encourage the development of lower-carbon fuels and biofuels, suppliers will have to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions caused by the production, transport and use of their fuels by 10% between 2011 and 2020. This will cut emissions by a cumulative total of 500 million tonnes of carbon dioxide by 2020.

On 31 January 2007 the European Commission1 proposed new standards for transport fuels that will reduce their contribution to climate change and air pollution, including through greater use of biofuels. The proposed changes to Directive 98/70 underscore the Commission's commitment to ensure that the EU combats climate change and air pollution effectively

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Study on renewable fuelsStudy on renewable fuelsStudy on renewable fuelsStudy on renewable fuels

From an environmental perspective, it is important to bear in mind that it is not enough to seek 'alternative' fuels - if we are to move towards a sustainable transport system, these fuels must ultimately come from renewable sources. DG2 Environment has sponsored a study on renewable fuels for cross border transportation in the EU. This study looks at the potential of producing such fuels within the boundaries of the EU, at the costs and at the environmental impacts involved in doing so. The study looks at a wide range of options and selects a few for in-depth study and conceivable introduction strategies.

Study on transportStudy on transportStudy on transportStudy on transport----related impacts and instruments for sensitive areasrelated impacts and instruments for sensitive areasrelated impacts and instruments for sensitive areasrelated impacts and instruments for sensitive areas

The Commission's Directorate-General for Environment has undertaken a study of transport through sensitive areas, motivated in part by the growing transport flows through areas such as the Alps.

The study was completed in 2004. The following definition was used at the outset:

The term ‘sensitive area concerning transport (SAT)’ denotes an area that is substantially more affected by adverse impacts from transport activity than the average, either because its environmental conditions render it extraordinarily sensitive to such impacts or because it is exposed to particularly high volumes of traffic.

...........................................................................................................................................

1 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/sat.htm [EEA (European Environment Agency) and Air quality].

2 Directorate General

Texto N° 21

Waste Management Resources Waste management is the precise name for the collection, transportation, disposal or recycling and monitoring of waste. This term is assigned to the material, waste material that is produced through human being activity. This material is managed to avoid its adverse effect over human health and environment. Most of the time, waste is managed to get resources from it. The waste to be managed includes all forms of matter i.e. gaseous, liquid, solid and radioactive matter.

The methods for the management of waste may differ for developed and developing nations. For urban and rural populations, industrial and residential areas it does differ as well. The management of waste in metropolitan and rural areas is general responsibility of the local

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government. While the waste that is produced by the industries is managed by the industry itself, incase it is non-hazardous.

Methods for dumping off waste:

Landfill: this method involves burying off the waste and this is the most common practice for the disposal of waste around the Globe. These landfills are quite often conventional with deserted and vacant locations around the cities. In case, landfills or borrow pits are designed carefully they can serve as economical and quite sanitized method for waste dumping. However, not much effectively designed and older landfills can cost a big amount to the government not just in terms of money but also in the environmental and health issues. Apart from the general poorly designed landfill’s common problems like wind-blown debris and generation of liquid, it can also cause production of gas, which is extremely hazardous. This gas can be a reason for production of odor, killing surface vegetation and greenhouse effects.

The characteristic, which is must for an up to date landfill, is inclusion of clay or leachate lining. The waste that is deposited is generally compressed for increasing the density and stability and later it is covered to have it prevented from vermin. One thing, which is addition to modern landfills, is the “gas extraction system” installation. This system is included to have the gas extracted from the borrow pit.

Incineration:

This is the dumping off method, which involves combustion for waste materials. This sort of dumping off for waste materials through incineration and temperature is known as “thermal treatment”. This method is utilized to convert waste materials in to gas, heat, ash and steam.

Incineration is conducted on both individual and industrial scale. This method is used for disposing off all sorts of matters. This generally is the most recognized practical method for disposing off perilous material. This, however, is the conflict-ridden method for it causes the emission of perilous gases.

Incineration is a common practice in Japan because of scarcity of land, which facilitates through not requiring landfill for waste dumping. Two widely used terms, which are facilitating burning of waste material in furnace and boiler for generation of heat, electricity and steam, are (Waste-to-energy) WtW and (energy-from-waste) EfW.

The burning procedure in this method for waste disposal is never perfect so, fear for gas pollutants is mounting. Special concerns have been focused over some extremely importunate organics as dioxins. These organic products are created with the incinerator and they are causations for serious consequences affecting environment.

Methods for recycling:

Products like PVC, LDEP, PP and PS are recyclable though they are not collected for recycling. The material, which is composed of a single type, is recyclables and is much easy to work with. However, complex products are difficult to treat and so are complex for recycling.

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Biological reprocessing:

Waste materials, which come in organic nature are treated through biological reprocessing. The waste materials with organic nature are plant, food and paper products. This reprocessing or recycling of this organic matter is put to biological decomposition which later if recycled in form of mulch or compost for landscaping and agricultural purposes. Additionally, the waste gas, which is collected from the process, is used for the production of electricity. The goal behind biological reprocessing is to control and speed up the natural decomposition for organic matter.

A numerous sort of composting techniques and methods for digestion are employed depending upon the requirement as if digestion is required for household heaps or industrial materials. There are diverse methods for biological reprocessing like anaerobic and aerobic techniques.

Recovery of Energy:

Waste materials can directly be combusted for the generation of energy as fuel or other method, indirect combustion can also be adopted for energy generation. Thermal treatment for recycling purpose included burning of waste for the generation of energy used for household purpose i.e. cooking and heating while the energy from recycling can also be produced at industrial level from boilers. Among thermal treatments you have two related kinds i.e. Pyrolysis and gasification. In these sorts of methods, materials are heated with little supply of oxygen at high temperature. This process is conducted in sealed vessels with high pressure. In Pyrolysis, the solid is converted in to liquid state and liquid is converted in to gas. These products of treatment can then be used for the production of energy. The residue that is left behind is generally known as “char”, which is further treated for the production of more useable products. In Gasification however, the material to be treated is directly converted in to SynGas (synthetic gas) which has hydrogen and carbon dioxide as its components.

Reduction and Avoidance Methods:

Another method for the management of the waste material is the avoidance for it being created and this method is generally named as “waste reduction”. The avoidance for waste production includes using the second-hand product and repairing the products you have broken in place of buying new things. Products are designed for refilling and reusing. Cutting down use of disposable things and producing products that are more complex.

Waste handling and transportation

Collection for waste material does vary from place to place and country to country. Domestic waste collection management does it work under the supervision of local government or by some private waste management company. Some areas, which are less populated or not much developed, have ceremonial systems for collection of waste. Following are mentioned few of the waste collection methods as are practiced around the world.

• For waste disposal and collection Curbside Collection, method has been adopted in Australia. Almost every residency is endowed with three garbage disposal bins, for

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recyclables, general waste and garden materials. The local municipality provides these bins however, some of houses have compost bin, which is not provided by municipality. Municipality, for encouraging recycling does provide larger bins for recyclables other than gardening and general waste. The waste which is produced by Municipal, commercial and constructional institutions is dumped at landfills while recyclables are recycled. ABS has remarked that recycling has the high rate and is mounting day by day. Apart for recycling energy is also being produced through waste. Landfills produce gas, which is used for burning as fuel for electricity generation.

• In European countries and some other locations around the globe, waste is collected through a system known as Enavc. This system involves conveying of garbage through underground vacuum system.

• In urban location in Canada, Curbside collection system is used, mostly. While in cities, waste collection is scheduled. Rural areas have their waste disposed by moving it to transfer stations. All collected waste is then disposed off at landfills.

Concepts for Waste Management

A number of concepts for waste management exist and vary around the World. A few out of them being general are mentioned below.

- Waste hierarchy: this concept refers to “3Rs”. This means Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. This concept have the waste management strategy has its basis in the prestige for waste reduction. This concept stands taller for more waste reduction plans. - Extended producer reliability: this concept refers to the accountability of the producer to the complete life cycle of the products he manufactures.

-Polluters Pays Principle: this concept means that if you are the party who has the lion’s share in polluting environment then you have to pay for this. With reference to waste management, the polluter would have to pay the price for the waste to be completely disposed off.

Education and Awareness

Waste management is an area, which needs education and awareness for global preservation. A declaration is known as “Talloires Declaration”, which is concerned about the ever-increasing environmental pollution and diminution of natural resources. The education for waste management and pollution is very critical to the perseverance of global health and security of humankind. A number of universities and Vocational education institutions are working for the promotion of organizations working for this purpose. A number of supermarkets are today also playing their part in encouraging recycling with the introduction of “reverse vending machines”. These machines when are deposited with used recyclable container produce refunds from the recycling charges. Such machines are produced under brand names Tomra and Envipco.

© Copyright 2009 Waste Management Resources

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Texto N° 22

Basic Science in a Competitive World

by Robert Aymar, former Director General of CERN1 first published in Symmetry magazine, August 2006

We are constantly being told that we live in a competitive world in which innovation is the main driver towards growth and prosperity. What is the place in such a world for fundamental science, whose short-term contribution to society is knowledge without any immediate application? Is it an unnecessary luxury? Should the world be deploying its resources in pursuit of more pressing needs: public health, clean energy, safe water? Of course it should, and I believe that investment in fundamental science serves these goals. It is a long-term investment, laying the foundations for future innovation and prosperity.

History teaches us that big jumps in human innovation come about mainly as a basic result of pure curiosity. Innovation is key to meeting many of today’s development challenges, and the primary force for innovation is fundamental research. Without it, there would be no science to apply. Faraday's experiments on electricity, for example, were driven by curiosity but eventually brought us electric light. No amount of R&D on the candle could ever have done that. Electric light came from innovation driven by fundamental science.

The long-term role of fundamental science is well understood by the European Investment Bank, the financial arm of the European Union. In 2003, the EIB gave a strong endorsement of fundamental science when it lent €300 million to CERN to help finance the construction of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Why should the EIB consider the world’s largest fundamental physics project to be a worthy investment? I believe the reason is that fundamental science paves the way to future innovation.

1 CERN is the European Organization for Nuclear Research. The name is derived from the acronym for the French Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire, or European Council for Nuclear Research

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Texto N° 23

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Texto Nº 24

• Finance & Investments > • General Finance & Investments > • The Journal of Finance > • Vol 48 Issue 3 > • Abstract

The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of Internal Control Systems

JENSEN, M. C. (1993), The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of Internal

Control Systems. The Journal of Finance, 48: 831–880.doi: 10.1111/j.1540-

6261.1993.tb04022.x

ABSTRACT

Since 1973 technological, political, regulatory, and economic forces have been changing the worldwide economy

in a fashion comparable to the changes experienced during the nineteenth century Industrial Revolution. As in the

nineteenth century, we are experiencing declining costs, increasing average (but decreasing marginal)

productivity of labor, reduced growth rates of labor income, excess capacity, and the requirement for downsizing

and exit. The last two decades indicate corporate internal control systems have failed to deal effectively with

these changes, especially slow growth and the requirement for exit. The next several decades pose a major

challenge for Western firms and political systems as these forces continue to work their way through the

worldwide economy.

I. Introduction

Parallels between the Modern and Historical Industrial Revolutions

Fundamental technological, political, regulatory, and economic forces are radically changing the worldwide

competitive environment. We have not seen such a metamorphosis of the economic landscape since the

Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. The scope and pace of the changes over the past two decades

qualify this period as a modern industrial revolution, and I predict it will take decades for these forces to be fully

worked out in the worldwide economy.

Although the current and historical economic transformations occurred a century apart, the parallels between the

two are strikingly similar: most notably, the widespread technological and organizational change leading to

declining costs, increasing average but decreasing marginal productivity of labor, reduced growth rates in labor

income, excess capacity, and—ultimately—downsizing and exit.

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The capital markets played a major role in eliminating excess capacity both in the nineteenth century and in the

1980s. The merger boom of the 1890s brought about a massive consolidation of independent firms and the

closure of marginal facilities. In the 1980s the capital markets helped eliminate excess capacity through leveraged

acquisitions, stock buybacks, hostile takeovers, leveraged buyouts, and divisional sales. Just as the takeover

specialists of the 1980s were disparaged by managers, policymakers, and the press, the so-called Robber Barons

were criticized in the nineteenth century. In both cases the criticism was followed by public policy changes that

restricted the capital markets: in the nineteenth century the passage of antitrust laws restricting combinations, and

in the late 1980s the reregulation of the credit markets, antitakeover legislation, and court decisions that restricted

the market for corporate control.

Although the vast increases in productivity associated with the nineteenth century industrial revolution increased

aggregate welfare, the large costs associated with the obsolescence of human and physical capital generated

substantial hardship, misunderstanding, and bitterness. As noted in 1873 by Henry Ward Beecher, a well-known

commentator and influential clergyman of the time,

• The present period will always be memorable in the dark days of commerce in America. We have had

commercial darkness at other times. There have been these depressions, but none so obstinate and none so

universal … Great Britain has felt it; France has felt it; all Austria and her neighborhood has experienced it. It is

cosmopolitan. It is distinguished by its obstinacy from former like periods of commercial depression. Remedies

have no effect. Party confidence, all stimulating persuasion, have not lifted the pall, and practical men have

waited, feeling that if they could tide over a year they could get along; but they could not tide over the year. If only

one or two years could elapse they could save themselves. The years have lapsed, and they were worse off than

they were before. What is the matter? What has happened? Why, from the very height of prosperity without any

visible warning, without even a cloud the size of a man's hand visible on the horizon, has the cloud gathered, as it

were, from the center first, spreading all over the sky? (Price (1933), p. 6).

On July 4, 1892, the Populist Party platform adopted at the party's first convention in Omaha reflected similar

discontent and conflict:

• We meet in the midst of a nation brought to the verge of moral, political, and material ruin. … The fruits

of the toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for the few, unprecedented in the history of

mankind; and the possessors of these in turn despise the republic and endanger liberty. From the same prolific

womb of government injustice are bred two great classes of tramps and millionaires. (McMurray (1929), p. 7).

Technological and other developments that began in the mid-twentieth century have culminated in the past two

decades in a similar situation: rapidly improving productivity, the creation of overcapacity and, consequently, the

requirement for exit. Although efficient exit—because of the ramifications it has on productivity and human

welfare—remains an issue of great importance, research on the topic has been relatively sparse since the 1942

publication of Schumpeter's insights on creative destruction.1 These insights will almost certainly receive renewed

attention in the coming decade:

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• Every piece of business strategy acquires its true significance only against the background of that

process and within the situation created by it. It must be seen in its role in the perennial gale of creative

destruction; it cannot be understood irrespective of it or, in fact, on the hypothesis that there is a perennial lull …

The usual theorist's paper and the usual government commission's report practically never try to see that

behavior, on the one hand, as a result of a piece of past history and, on the other hand, as an attempt to deal with

a situation that is sure to change presently—as an attempt by those firms to keep on their feet, on ground that is

slipping away from under them. In other words, the problem that is usually being visualized is how capitalism

administers existing structures, whereas the relevant problem is how it creates and destroys them. (Schumpeter

(1976), p. 83).

Current technological and political changes are bringing this issue to the forefront. It is important for managers,

policymakers, and researchers to understand the magnitude and generality of the implications of these forces.

Outline of the Paper

In this paper, I review the industrial revolutions of the nineteenth century and draw on these experiences to

enlighten our understanding of current economic trends. Drawing parallels to the 1800s, I discuss in some detail

the changes that mandate exit in today's economy. I address those factors that hinder efficient exit, and outline

the control forces acting on the corporation to eventually overcome these barriers. Specifically, I describe the role

of the market for corporate control in affecting efficient exit, and how the shutdown of the capital markets has, to a

great extent, transferred this challenge to corporate internal control mechanisms. I summarize evidence, however,

indicating that internal control systems have largely failed in bringing about timely exit and downsizing, leaving

only the product market or legal/political/regulatory system to resolve excess capacity. Although overcapacity will

in the end be eliminated by product market forces, this solution generates large, unnecessary costs. I discuss the

forces that render internal control mechanisms ineffective and offer suggestions for their reform. Lastly, I address

the challenge this modern industrial revolution poses for finance professionals; that is, the changes that we too

must undergo to aid in the learning and adjustments that must occur over the next several decades.

II. The Second Industrial Revolution

III. The Modern Industrial Revolution

IV. The Difficulty of Exit

V. The Role of the Market for Corporate Control

VI. The Failure of Corporate Internal Control

Systems

VII. Direct Evidence of the Failure of Internal

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X. Conclusion

For those with a normative bent, making the internal control systems of corporations work is the major challenge

facing economists and management scholars in the 1990s. For those who choose to take a purely positive

approach, the major challenge is understanding how these systems work, and how they interact with the other

control forces (in particular the product and factor markets, legal, political, and regulatory systems, and the capital

markets) impinging on the corporation. I believe the reason we have an interest in developing positive theories of

the world is so that we can understand how to make things work more efficiently. Without accurate positive

theories of cause and effect relationships, normative propositions and decisions based on them will be wrong.

Therefore, the two objectives are completely consistent.

Financial economists have a unique advantage in working on these control and organizational

problems because we understand what determines value, and we know how to think about

uncertainty and objective functions. To do this we have to understand even better than we do

now the factors leading to organizational past failures (and successes): we have to break open

the black box called the firm, and this means understanding how organizations and the people

in them work. In short, we're facing the problem of developing a viable theory of

organizations. To be successful we must continue to broaden our thinking to new topics and

to learn and develop new analytical tools. This research effort is a very profitable venture. I

commend it to you.

Texto Nº 25

FECON Awards and Recognition

Professional Development Award

The Florida Engineers in Construction Professional Development Award is presented annually to the nominated construction employer of engineering personnel who has made the most outstanding contribution to the advancement and improvement of the engineering profession through its employment practices and professional development policies.

The final selection for the FECON Professional Development Award will be made by the FECON Administrative Committee on the basis of both current and long term reputations of the

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ENGINEERING EXCELLENCE AWARD WINNERS

BACK to FES Home Page

Florida Engineering Society P.O. Box 750

Tallahassee, FL 32302-0750

125 South Gadsden Street Tallahassee, FL 32301

Telephone: (850) 224-7121

Email: [email protected]

organizations under consideration with particular emphasis on the preceeding 12 months. The factors considered are outlined on the nomination form.

Incomplete forms may lead to disqualification or low rating of nominee. Forms submitted, therefore, should be complete and contain precise and accurate data.

CLICK HERE to open and print an award application (in PDF format)

CLICK HERE to open and print an award application (in MS Word format)

The nomination form must be submitted by April 15, 2012 to:

Florida Engineers in Construction P.O. Box 750

Tallahassee, FL 32302

FECON Scholarships Available

*** 2011 Winner Keith Merkel ***

The Florida Engineers in Construction are pleased to announce the availability of a $1,000 scholarship. An applicant must:

• Be currently enrolled or accepted into a Florida university engineering program.

• Be in or entering his/her junior or senior year. • Have at least a 3.0 average on a 4.0 scale. • Be recommended by an engineering faculty member. • Be interested in pursuing a career in the field of

construction.

If no qualified applications are received, FECON reserves the right not to award a scholarship. The selection of the scholarship recipient is made by the FECON Administrative Committee and is final.

Amount of Scholarship: $1,000

Deadline: February 15, 2012

Please CLICK HERE to open and print an applications form (in PDF format) or contact Kelly Jones at FES Headquarters, 850-224-7121 for further information.

Submit Application to:

FECON Scholarship 125 S. Gadsden Street Tallahassee, FL 32301

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Professional Development Award

FECON Scholarships

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Texto Nº 26

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Texto N° 27

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Texto N° 28 Resumé and Cover letter

Richard Anderson

1234, West 67 Street,

Carlisle, MA 01741,

(123)-456 7890.

OBJECTIVE :

To gain employment with a company where my leadership experience and knowledge,

especially in the area of thermodynamics, can be used effectively.

EDUCATION :

University Of Colorado at Boulder

B.S. Mechanical Engineering, May 2003

• Relevant Projects: Designed, built, and tested an evaporative cooler, Spring

2002

• Relevant Courses: Advanced Thermodynamics, Intro to Combustion, Failure of

Engineering Materials

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE ACADEMY, Summer 1998 – Summer 2000

Mechanical Engineering, Cumulative GPA: 3.5

Academically ranked 12th out of 1000 cadets at time of honorable discharge

EXPERIENCE :

HGF Industries

Head Mechanical Engineer, 2006 - present

DREGS ENGINEERING

Engineering team member, 2005

• Supported the development and documentation of mechanical and fluid system

and thermal environment requirements to establish the system design.

BYRD CONSTRUCTION, Longmont, CO

Carpenter/General Laborer, Summer 2002

• Learned valuable skills which can be applied to improving the actual

implementation of design in the field

OFFICE OF FINANCIAL AID, CU-BOULDER, Boulder, CO (worked 15 hours per

week)

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Advisor/Customer Service Representative, Spring 2001 – Spring 2002

• Gained valuable experience assisting customers with their confidential financial

aid accounts

LEADERSHIP :

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE, USAF ACADEMY, Colorado Springs, CO

Cadet, active duty military, Jun 1998 – Jul 2000

• Cumulative Overall Performance Average (OPA): 3.25

• Chief Clerk, Fall 1999 – charged with leading 3rd Class Cadets in my squadron

in performing their duties to standard

• Basic Cadet Training, Recognition, Combat Survival Training (CST),

Parachuting, Gliding

COMMUNITY SERVICE :

CO-VOLUNTEER DAY, Nov 2001

• Painted the walls of an elementary school to improve its aesthetic appeal

BIG BROTHERS/BIG SISTERS – FALCON CLUB, 1998 – 2000

• Served as Big Brother for a young teen who lived with his single mother

• Participated in various events with the club

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Richard Anderson 1234, West 67 Street,

Carlisle, MA 01741. (123)-456 7890.

Date: 1st January 2009

Justin Holloway Triatt Engineering 1234 Archer Road, Gainesville, Fl 32607, (352)-555 1635 (352)-555 1635

Dear Mr. Justin,

Your job description for a mechanical engineer perfectly matches my qualifications, and I am very interested in the opportunity. Thus, I have attached my resume for your review. Though I am very happy with my present employment at HGF Industries as Head Mechanical Engineer, when I saw your job posting seeking a Mechanical Engineer for your company; I was very enthusiastic to apply-as I have long esteemed Triatt Engineering as one of the best in the country. I seek a successful career with you. My experience as a Mechanical Engineer extends to five years after obtaining my degree, and I have gradually increased my responsibility within that time from Associate Engineer to Senior Mechanical Engineer. I have been responsible for all tasks from creation and model development to production; and have been instrumental in a number of Dregs Engineering’s newest product launches, as my portfolio will attest.

In my career with Dregs Engineering, I have received numerous award and commendations from supervisory staff as well as the CEO and shareholders. I know I can bring this same level of enduring success and quality craftsmanship to the operations of Triatt Engineering. With this, I submit my candidacy and keen interest in becoming a part of the Triatt team, and look forward to adding my intellect, solid mechanical engineering skills, and strong work ethic to your short and long term efforts. Thanks so much for your time, and please contact me at (999)999-9999 at your earliest convenience to arrange a time when we might discuss the opportunity and my qualifications more closely. I look forward to speaking with you!

Sincerely,

Richard Anderson

Enclosure: Resume

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Texto N° 29

July 12, 2010, 12:30 pm

A New Approach to Biofuel in Africa

By RON EGLASH

The biofuel concept: If you just burn plant materials, you put out a lot of bad pollutants. But if you heat the materials in a container without oxygen (“pyrolysis”), you leave most of the carbon as “biochar,” which makes an excellent soil additive (in fact Amazon Indians built up rich soils over hundreds of years using biochar). The gas that is given off by pyrolysis can be processed into clean-burning fuel. All of which sounds great, but skeptics point out that Africa is a prime target for biofuel land grabs, which destroy small farms and forest preserves. Hence the importance of using agricultural residues like corn cobs, and researching the impact.

If you send a known gas mixture into the biofuel apparatus, you get some characteristic flame “profile” –shape, color and temperature. Now send through an unknown gas at the same rate—produced by pyrolysis of corn cobs for example—and you can find the nearest profile, giving a rough assessment for the biofuel potential, which is all we need for our mission here. In December we will bring KNUST students back to RPI, where they will carry out more precise testing of the chemical composition.

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But you can’t compare flames unless you have the gases flowing at the same rate, and our flow meter needed a final adjustment inside its tube. We couldn’t find a needle-nose pliers or tweezers to reach inside, but KNUST resourcefulness had rubbed off on our undergrad engineers at this point, and they fashioned a tool from a spare hairpin. With the addition of a combustion chamber adapted from a filter canister, the system is now ready for testing.

Audrey Bennett’s HIV workshop had also taken a productive turn. She began with a half-dozen KNUST students, and they discussed their understanding of HIV transmission and local prevention campaigns. One of them maintained that there are condom shortages in Ghana, especially on Valentine’s Day. Favorite prevention campaigns included a local KNUST billboard, “Acquire a degree, not HIV,” and a billboard showing a bus covered with a condom (emphasizing the transmission that occurs in the context of migrant workers and transportation). Audrey then showed them the posters created by a rural group in Kenya during one of her previous projects, and an interactive poster she had created, based on one of the Kenyan designs, that allowed users to change images and text.

Finally it was time to set the students lose on creating their own sketches for poster concepts. Fortunately the student who had what everyone agreed was the best design—a soccer-based poster that read “Give AIDS the red card”—was able to find time to return to his community and test out the idea. He reported that several suggested the poster should also show a condom. Audrey held a quick photo shoot (the original image showed a white hand holding the card), and soon had a finished prototype. Her next steps will be to create a small hand-out to go with the poster—an actual red card with HIV prevention tips.

Lastly, the math education project at Ayeduase Jr. High School: on our final two days we focused on fractals. First we just covered the idea of repeated geometric transformations using cornrow hairstyles. Since the website includes a cultural history of cornrows, this gave me a chance to see how the students in Ghana thought about their connection to African American culture. They were a bit more reluctant to discuss the slave trade era (perhaps only because they knew less about it), but just like African American students they all wanted to focus on the hip-hop section of the history.

On the final day we moved from the simple scaling series of cornrows to the fully recursive patterns of other African Fractals. We had previously found a spectacular example of fractal kente cloth in Bonwire, and the students used our software to produce some terrific fractal designs of their own. Several seemed fascinated by fractals in Ethiopian designs related to Christianity. My favorite was a piece two students created that featured a scaling array of crosses. But I have to say that the best moment for me was when we left the computer lab and walked outside to look at fractals in bark and branches. It was that moment when they connected math and African culture to their own power to investigate the world around them.

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Texto N° 30

Waste recycling plant

Aluminium can recycling. The bales seen here contain over one million cans.

Recycling domestic refuse

The consumer society produces more and more refuse. A number of solutions to this problem have been proposed. In some countries refuse is burnt to generate electric power. In Germany, producers must take back unwanted packaging for recycling. In other countries, householders are asked to separate out refuse so that it can be recycled more easily. This text describes an experimental plant in Holland designed to recycle domestic refuse.

The rubbish collected from households consists of a mixture of organic materials such as kitchen waste, and inorganic materials such as glass and plastic bottles, tin cans, and packaging. The rubbish is first passed through a hammer mill to shred it. The mill consists of rotating steel arms which break up any large items to reduce them to a more manageable size. Any items which may cause damage later in the process are rejected at this stage.

The shredded mixture passes under an electromagnet which removes ferrous metals. Much of this is tin cans. Almost all ferrous metals are recovered in this way.

After that, the residue is carried by conveyor belt to an air classifier. A stream of air is blown through the classifier, which has a zig-zag shape. Low density materials such as plastic, paper, and some organic substances rise to the top of the classifier. Higher density materials such as glass and non-ferrous metals fall to the bottom and are discarded. These could be further separated out using a range of processes. For example, an eddy current mechanism could screen out aluminium waste. Froth flotation techniques could recover glass.

The low density portion is carried to a rotating drum where it is screened. Fine organic materials pass through the screen leaving a mixture which consists mainly of plastic and paper. The organic residue can be used for compost or to make bricks.

The next stage is to separate the plastic from the paper. This was initially a problem as both are similar in density. The solution is to wet the mixture. The paper absorbs water and as a result becomes denser than the plastic.

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In the final stage, the wetted mixture is passed through a second air-classifier where the lighter plastic leaves from the top and the denser wet paper from the bottom. The recovered paper could be fed to pulp mills for further recycling.

The remaining plastic is a mixture of thermosets and thermoplastics. It is not easy to separate these out but the mixture can be melted and formed into insulating materials for building.

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Texto Nº 31

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Texto N° 32

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Texto Nº 33

Five Biggest Engineering Disasters

The Engineer posted on February 11, 2013 |

As engineers continue to push the boundaries of scientific invention and exploration, along with great achievements unfortunately come terrible failures too. Fortunately, from mistakes lessons are learned but sometimes only once a high price has been paid.

Among the greatest tales of engineering disasters are nuclear reaction explosions, the sinking of great vessels and explosions of space searching rockets. Five of the biggest are the subject of this article and it has been debatable which to include. There were numerous to choose from such as the World Trade Center; the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill; Hyatt Regency Hotel Walkway Collapse; the 1970s DC-10 Disasters; Apollo 1, and the failure of the New Orleans Levee System during Hurricane Katrina.

While all these disasters remind us of the scale of human endeavour, there is massive potential for failure in the more ordinary. Even bearings, that every day yet essential engineering component of moving systems cannot be overlooked – an overheated one caused an engine failure which caused an engine fire, which led to cabin decompression and finally to the crash of an aircraft in Poland in 1987 – resulting in 193 fatalities.

Engineering is a precise science. Attention to detail and the highest safety standards must be adhered to at all times. Perhaps the most important lesson for us all is not to consign these events to history but to make sure they continue to be recognised by tightened regulations. These lessons also serve as a reminder for people to speak up when necessary to avoid these mistakes being made again.

1. Chernobyl

In the early hours of 26 April 1986, a structurally unsound reactor at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat in Ukraine in the Soviet Union exploded. It caused the release of massive quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. 350,400 people were evacuated and resettled from the most

severely contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine.

The disaster began during a systems test when there was a power surge followed by an emergency shutdown and an exponentially larger spike in power output. The reactor vessel ruptured, there was a series of steam explosions, and the reactor’s graphite moderator was exposed to the air, causing it to ignite. The resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere over an extensive geographical area.

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In terms of human deaths, the Chernobyl nuclear accident was one of the worst energy accidents in human history. Figures vary widely but between 31 and 64 deaths have been directly attributed to the incident, with estimates of up to 4,000 deaths among those exposed to the highest levels of radiation. Among those living in the broader geographical areas, the numbers of those affected range from 30,000 to nearly a million premature cancer deaths.

2. The Bhopal Disaster

In 1984, a toxic gas release at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India resulted in 2,259 immediate deaths and some 11,000 deaths following the disaster.

Over 42 tons of Methyl isocyanate - a highly toxic and irritating material used in the making of pesticides – became contaminated with water, causing an exothermic reaction, which increased the temperature inside the tank to over 200°C , far beyond its capacity. Automated emergency release systems kicked in, venting the extra pressure and a large volume of gasses, which escaped and began to spread. Had that gas been lighter than air, it might have dispersed with minimal harm. Unfortunately, being heavier than air, it crawled for miles, seeping into the nearby city of Bhopal. A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478 "temporary partial" and approximately 3,900 "severely and permanently disabling" injuries.

It has now been 25 years since the horrific disaster, yet still the land around Bhopal remains blighted and toxic to humans and animals alike. Today, the 390 tons of toxic chemicals continuing to pollute the groundwater in the region. The disaster serves as a reminder for the way the industry approaches process safety management (PSM). The right decisions need to be made daily to ensure the safety of your process – and this in turn helps ensure the meaning of the phrase

“recognised and generally accepted good engineering practices.”

3. Titanic

The sinking of the Titanic is history's most epic sea disaster and the topic of endless books, feature films and documentaries.

In 1912, the world’s largest ship, on its maiden voyage carrying some of the world’s richest people had a freak accident with a catastrophic loss of life. Four days into her journey, on the night of 14th April the Titanic struck an iceberg in the North Atlantic and was so badly damaged that she survived for less than three hours before she sank. Two thirds of Titanic’s passengers and crew were lost because there were not enough lifeboats to rescue everyone on board. Over 1500 people drowned.

It is believed that safety took second place to aesthetics in the ship’s design. The original design included two rows of lifeboats on the deck, but one row was removed allowing more space and a

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better view for passengers with first-class berths. This was not against the Board of Trade regulations which covered only ships up to 13,000t and not the 46,000t Titanic.

Research has found it likely that the iceberg buckled the plates and popped out substandard rivets along a length of the hull, allowing water into at least five of the watertight compartments. As the boat went down by the head, water flowed over the transverse bulkheads, which were barely above the waterline, into other compartments. It has been said that the height of the bulkheads was reduced to avoid spoiling the first-class public rooms.

In the aftermath of the disaster, the height of transverse bulkheads was increased and double hulls reaching further up the sides of ships became common. There were new regulations regarding safety, increasing the number of lifeboats and allowing easy access to them for all passengers. There were also changes regarding the use of radio at sea.

4. The Space Shuttle Challenger

Just 73 seconds after its launch, on 28 January 1986, space shuttle Challenger broke apart, killing its seven crew members. The subsequent Rogers Commission found the cause of the accident was the failure of both primary and secondary O-rings on the right solid rocket booster, allowing hot gas and flame to escape, which then came into contact with the booster attachment and external tank, resulting in structural failure.

The problems with the O-rings had been known about for nine years but had been ignored, partly because safety was deemed ensured with the presence of the second ring. However, as was later made clear, the second ring was there for unforeseen failure, not a failure that had been considered. Engineers' warnings that low temperatures would exacerbate the problem were also ignored by NASA managers because of pressure to keep to the launch timetable.

Now widely used as a case study for trainee engineers, this disaster has been used to teach many lessons: primarily that that the advice of engineers should be considered carefully by management; and that the ethics of whistle-blowing and group decision-making should be introduced. Afterwards, there was a total redesign of the solid rocket boosters, in which three O-rings were incorporated, watched over by an independent oversight group as stipulated by the commission.

In summing up the disaster, Richard Feynman, a member of the Rogers Commission, made a telling point to the effect that "for a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled".

5. Apollo 13

The disaster about the crippled flight to the moon in 1970 that gave the film industry two of the most iconic film lines: “Houston, we have a problem” and “failure is not an option”.

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Apollo 13 was the seventh manned mission in the American Apollo space program and the third intended to land on the Moon. The craft was launched on April 11, 1970, at 13:13 CST from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank exploded two days later, crippling the service module upon which the Command Module depended.

Despite great hardship caused by limited power, loss of cabin heat, shortage of potable water, and the critical need to jury-rig the carbon dioxide removal system, the crew returned safely to Earth on April 17.

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Texto N° 34

First Galaxies Were Born Much Earlier Than Expected

ScienceDaily (Apr. 12, 2011)

Image credit: NASA, ESA, J. Richard (CRAL) and J.-P. Kneib (LAM). Acknowledgement: Marc Postman (STScI)

Using the amplifying power of a cosmic gravitational lens, astronomers have discovered a distant galaxy whose stars were born unexpectedly early in cosmic history. This result sheds new light on the formation of the

first galaxies, as well as on the early evolution of the Universe.

Johan Richard, the lead author of a new study says: "We have discovered a distant galaxy that began forming stars just 200 million years after the Big Bang.

Richard's team spotted the galaxy in recent observations from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, verified it with observations from the NASA Spitzer Space Telescope and measured its distance using W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii.

The distant galaxy is visible through a cluster of galaxies called Abell 383, whose powerful gravity bends the rays of light almost like a magnifying glass. The chance alignment of the galaxy, the cluster and Earth amplifies the light reaching us from this distant galaxy, allowing the astronomers to make detailed observations. Without this gravitational lens, the galaxy would have been too faint to be observed even with today's largest telescopes.

After spotting the galaxy in Hubble and Spitzer images, the team carried out spectroscopic observations with the Keck-II telescope in Hawaii. Spectroscopy is the technique of breaking up light into its component colours.

By analysing these spectra, the team was able to make detailed measurements of its redshift and infer information about the properties of its component stars.

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The galaxy's redshift is 6.027, which means we see it as it was when the Universe was around 950 million years old. "When we looked at the spectra, two things were clear," explains co-author Eiichi Egami. "The redshift placed it very early in cosmic history, as we expected.

But the Spitzer infrared detection also indicated that the galaxy was made up of surprisingly old and relatively faint stars. This told us that the galaxy was made up of stars already nearly 750 million years old -- pushing back the epoch of its formation to about 200 million years after the Big Bang, much further than we had expected."

The discovery may help explain how the Universe became transparent to ultraviolet light in the first billion years after the Big Bang.

In the early years of the cosmos, a diffuse fog of neutral hydrogen gas blocked ultraviolet light in the Universe. Some source of radiation must therefore have progressively ionised the diffuse gas, clearing the fog to make it transparent to ultraviolet rays as it is today -- a process known as reionisation.

Astronomers believe that the radiation that powered this reionisation must have come from galaxies. "It seems probable that there are in fact far more galaxies out there in the early Universe than we previously estimated -- it's just that many galaxies are older and fainter, like the one we have just discovered," says co-author Jean-Paul Kneib.

"If this unseen army of faint, elderly galaxies is indeed out there, they could provide the missing radiation that made the Universe transparent to ultraviolet light."

As of today, we can only discover these galaxies by observing through massive clusters that act as cosmic telescopes. The Hubble Space Telescope is a project of international cooperation between NASA and ESA.

The giant cluster of elliptical galaxies contains so much dark matter mass that its gravitational field bends light. This means that for very distant galaxies in the background, the cluster acts as a sort of magnifying glass, bending and concentrating the distant object’s light towards Hubble. These gravitational lenses are one tool astronomers can use to extend Hubble’s vision beyond what it would normally be capable of seeing.

(Credit: NASA, ESA, J. Richard (CRAL) and J.-P. Kneib (LAM). Acknowledgement: Marc Postman (STScI))

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Texto Nº 35

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Texto N° 36

Texto Nº 37

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Texto N° 38

Information Systems Engineering Information technology permeates all aspects of modern society. Now, more than ever, the field holds the promise of new technologies and career opportunities. EP's Information Systems Engineering program is designed to appeal to a wide range of professionals: IT professionals as well as technically-oriented business people looking to acquire a deeper understanding of IT.

The EP program addresses the analysis, design, development, and integration of systems, and prepares students to create and manage complex information systems that solve real-world problems. Expert instructors teach a wide range of topics, including distributed systems, information security, and project management. Degree program students are prepared to design effective information systems, develop efficient computer and communications networks, conduct complex systems analysis, create sophisticated decision support systems, and understand the costs and trade-offs of system options.

Texto N° 39

What is Chemical Engineering Chemical engineering is a discipline influencing numerous areas of technology. Chemical engineers work in manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, healthcare, design and construction, pulp and paper, petrochemicals, food processing, specialty chemicals, polymers, biotechnology, and environmental health and safety industries, among others. Within these industries, chemical engineers rely on their knowledge of mathematics and science, particularly chemistry, to overcome technical problems safely and economically. And, of course, they draw upon and apply their engineering knowledge to solve any technical challenges they encounter. Don’t make the mistake of thinking that chemical engineers only make things, though. Their expertise is also applied in the area of law, education, publishing, finance, and medicine, as well as many other fields that require technical training.

Specifically, chemical engineers improve food processing techniques, and methods of producing fertilizers, to increase the quantity and quality of available food. They also construct the synthetic fibers that make our clothes more comfortable and water resistant; they develop methods to mass-produce drugs, making them more affordable; and they create safer, more efficient methods of refining petroleum products, making energy and chemical sources more productive and cost effective. They also develop solutions to environmental problems, such as pollution control and remediation.

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Texto N° 40

Columbia University

What is Mechanical Engineering?

Mechanical engineering is one of the largest, broadest, and oldest engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers use the principles of energy, materials, and mechanics to design and manufacture machines and devices of all types. They create the processes and systems that drive technology and industry.

The key characteristics of the profession are its breadth, flexibility, and individuality. The career paths of mechanical engineers are largely determined by individual choices, a decided advantage in a changing world. Mechanics, energy and heat, mathematics, engineering sciences, design and manufacturing form the foundation of mechanical engineering. Mechanics includes fluids, ranging from still water to hypersonic gases flowing around a space vehicle; it involves the motion of anything from a particle to a machine or complex structure.

Texto N° 41

Textile Engineering

Basic Information

The textile industry is one of the largest in America, producing everything from the fabric used in the clothes you wear to the plastic in IV tubes.

As you can imagine, an industry so vital and important to our society needs well trained engineers to help carry the field forward. As a textile engineer that someone can be you. From research and development to management issues, Textile Engineering majors have a wide array of options into which they can plug themselves.

The engineering behind the textile industry is cutting edge, so be prepared for some intense and exciting research opportunities ahead of you. In addition to research, many schools also offer you the opportunity to combine engineering and business courses to give you an added edge as you prepare to enter the job market.

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Texto N° 42

What is Civil Engineering?

Civil Engineering is considered to be the oldest engineering field. Civil Engineering includes the planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of the infrastructure that surrounds us and is the underpinning of our society. Our infrastructure includes roads, airports, railroads, buildings, bridges, water and wastewater treatment plants, sewers, drainage, flood control, water supply, landfills, and many other facilities. Most everything civil engineers do affects our daily lives in many ways.

Where do civil engineers work?

Most civil engineers work for consulting firms (which design projects and produce plans and specifications for building them) or government agencies (ranging from cities to the federal government). Some might join the military or work for manufacturers (such as pump, pipe, or steel building manufacturers). Initially in their careers, most civil engineers work on design, but generally as they gain more responsibility, they manage projects and do little engineering design. Other areas in which civil engineers work include sales, teaching, and research.

Texto N° 43

Maritime Engineering

Marine engineers design, operate, maintain, and repair the mechanical systems of ships. Working closely with the architect who designs the ship structure, a marine engineer designs the propulsion, auxiliary power machinery, and other equipment needed to run the ship. Most marine engineers are employed by private firms that build ships or make the equipment used in them. A few engineers do freelance work as consultants to these firms. Some are civilians employed by the U.S. Navy's Naval Sea System Command.

Marine engineers may specialize in certain kinds of equipment such as pumps, engines, gears, heaters, or deck machinery. Others concentrate on certain steps in shipbuilding, such as estimating the cost of the equipment needed. Still others may deal largely with one area of a ship's functions, such as lubrication. Marine engineers may also be inspectors. Inspectors make sure that the equipment works properly before the ship is launched. Some engineers specialize in the repair and maintenance of a ship when it is in dry dock.

Texto N° 44

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What is Electrical Engineering?

Electrical engineering is a huge and well established engineering field, with hundreds of career paths. For example, as an electrical engineer, you might:

• plan and design power stations and equipment for generators, • design the integrated circuits for the next generation of microprocessors, • design an aircraft control system, or • design telecommunications equipment and networks.

Electrical Engineers apply electronic and electromagnetic/optical design principles to design, build, and test analog or digital devices, circuits, and systems - for processing, communication, and storage of information; distribution, conversion, and storage of energy; and process automation or robotics. Application areas include communication, manufacturing, power and energy, health care, computing, security, entertainment, and many others. By their choice of elective courses, students specialize in the following broad domains:

• Systems for communication, control, or power. • Digital hardware, software, and the computer as a component. • Electronic, radio-frequency, or optical devices, circuits, and fabrication.

Texto N° 45

University of Nebraska–Lincoln

WHAT IS ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING?

Electronics is the technology associated with electronic circuits and systems, and is one of the major branches of electrical engineering. It is a discipline that uses scientific knowledge of the behaviour and effects of electrons to create components, devices, systems or equipment that use electricity as part of their source of power. These components include capacitors, diodes, resistors and transistors. Electronics engineers research, design, develop and test precision components and systems, developing the way electricity is used to control equipment. The work is usually carried out in cross-functional project teams, with colleagues in electronics and other branches of engineering. Electronics touches on almost all areas of human activity, so its applications are diverse. They include acoustics, defence, medical instruments, mobile phones, nanotechnology, radio and satellite communication and robotics. Subfields of electronic engineering include control engineering, instrumentation, signal processing and telecommunications engineering. Electronics engineers work on a project through all its stages: from the initial brief for a concept; through the design and development stage; to the testing of one or more prototypes; and through to the final manufacture and implementation of a new product or system.

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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways to use the basic factors of production — people, machines, materials, information, and energy — to make a product or to provide a service. They are the bridge between management goals and operational performance. They are more concerned with increasing productivity through the management of people, methods of business organization, and technology than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes. Although most industrial engineers work in manufacturing industries, they may also work in consulting services, healthcare, and communications.

To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product and its requirements, use mathematical methods such as operations research to meet those requirements, and design manufacturing and information systems. They develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis and design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and ensure product quality. They also design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers determine which plant location has the best combination of raw materials availability, transportation facilities, and costs. Industrial engineers use computers for simulations and to control various activities and devices, such as assembly lines and robots. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related.