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ISBN 978-88-95448-41-1

DERECHOS IN

DIVIDUALES

E INTEGRACIN

REGIONAL

(ANTOLOGA)

DERECHOS INDIVIDUALESE INTEGRACIN REGIONAL

(ANTOLOGA)

Mario I. lvarez Ledesma y Roberto CippitaniCoordinadores

ISEGRoma-Perugia-Mxico 54,00

UNIVERSITDEGLI STUDI

DI PERUGIA

ISEG

Derechos InDIvIDualese IntegracIn regIonal

(antologa)

Mario i. lvarez ledesMa y roberto Cippitani

Coordinadores

ISEGRoma-Perugia-Mxico

PROPIEDAD LITERARIA RESERVADA

Copyright 2013 byIstituto per gli Studi Economici e Giuridici - Gioacchino Scaduto

Universit degli Studi di Perugia - Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Scienze Biochimiche Instituto Tecnolgico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey Campus de Ciudad de Mxico

Roma Perugia Mxico

ISBN 978-88-95448-41-1

Este libro forma parte de las actividades del Proyecto IR&RI - Individual Rights and Regional Integration, financiado por la Unin Europea, EACEA, en el mbi-to del Programa Jean Monnet - Lifelong Learning Programme. Proyecto n. 528610

Queda prohibida, salvo excepcin prevista en la ley, cualquier forma de reproduccin, di-stribucin, comunicacin pblica y transformacin de esta obra. La infraccin de los de-rechos mencionados puede ser constitutiva de delito contra la propiedad intelectual.

Impreso en Italia, Istituto per gli Studi Economici e Giuridici Gioacchino Scaduto s.r.l. Spin-off dellUniversit degli Studi di Perugia, Via Margutta, 1/A Roma por Universit degli Studi di Perugia - Dipartimento di medicina sperimentale y Instituto Tecnolgico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey Campus de Ciudad de Mxico

NIF-IVA IT 08967801005

Derechos reservados

Universit degli Studi di Perugia

Coordinadores del Proyecto IR&RI: Roberto Cippitani (Universit degli Studi

di Perugia); Mario I. lvarez Ledesma (Instituto Tecnolgico y de Estudios

Superiores de Monterrey - CCM)

ComitcientficodelProyectoIR&RI: Rainer Arnold (Universitt Regensburg);

Hadley Christ (University of Brighton); Valentina Colcelli (Universit degli Studi

di Perugia), Juan J. Faundes (Universidad Catlica de Temuco), Manuel Hallivis

Pelayo (Tribunal Federal de Justicia Fiscal y Administrativa, Mxico, D.F.); Vctor

M. Martinez Bulle-Goyri (Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico), Carlos

Francisco Molina del Pozo (Universidad de Alcal de Henares), Juan P. Pampillo

Balio (Red Internacional de Juristas para la Integracin Americana), Hellen

T. Pacheco (Universidad de la Frontera); Luz Pacheco Zerga (Universidad de

Piura); Massimo Paradiso (Universit degli Studi di Catania); Calogero Pizzolo

(Universidad de Buenos Aires); Antonio Palazzo (Universit degli Studi di Perugia);

Susana Sanz Caballero (Universidad Carlos Herrera); Andrea Sassi (Universit degli

Studi di Perugia); Francesco Scaglione (Universit degli Studi di Perugia); Giovanni

Semeraro (Universidade Federal Fluminense de Niteroi); Stefania Stefanelli

(Universit degli Studi di Perugia); Ferdinando Treggiari (Universit degli Studi di

Perugia); Andrea Trisciuoglio (Universit degli Studi di Torino).

Segretaria editorial: Rossana Riccini (Universit degli Studi di Perugia)

NDICE

Preamble pag. 13AndreA SASSi

introduccin

Individual rights and models of international cooperation 19MArio i. lvArez ledeSMA, roberto cippitAni

1. Individual rights and legal system. 192. Legal subjects within the international law. 243. The internationalisation of human rights. 274. The Regional Model. 335. The courts and the construction of the Regional Legal Order. 366. The regional approach to legal interpretation. 447. The supranational model of integration. 518. From the economic rights toward the status

of European Unions citizenship. 569. Individual rights in the international integration processes:

some conclusive observations. 63

Primera PartePROCESOS DE INTEGRACIN EN LA UNIN EUROPEA

Y EN AMRICA: REALIDAD EN CONSTRUCCIN

La integracin regional y los derechos individuales a la luzdel derecho internacional y de integracin 69AliciA Gutirrez Gonzlez

1. Introduccin. 692. La evolucin de los procesos de integracin a nivel

internacional y regional: aspectos econmicos. 703. La proteccin de los derechos individuales en el mbito

del derecho internacional, regional y del derecho de integracin. 954. Conclusiones. 104

Estado actual y perspectivas de la integracin jurdica en Amrica pag. 107JuAn pAblo pAMpillo bAlio

1. Presentacin del tema. 1072. Importancia del derecho comunitario y del derecho comn. 1083. Integracin regional y derecho comunitario. 1114. El derecho comunitario y comn europeo como base

de una nueva dogmtica global. 1215. Retrospectiva y actualidad de la Integracin Jurdica Americana. 1336. Algunas reflexiones (econmicas, polticas, sociales y jurdicas)

sobre la integracin americana. 1527. Hacia un nuevo ius commune americano. 159

La ciudadana europea como elemento esencial y experiencia parael desarrollo de los procesos de integracin: ampliacin de su regulacinen el marco de la Unin Europea 167cArloS FrAnciSco MolinA del pozo

1. Derechos de ciudadana. Introduccin. 1672. Anlsis de la ciudadana europea en los Tratados. 1693. Posible ampliacin del concepto de ciudadana de la Unin. 1754. Consideracin de otros posibles derechos de ciudadana. 179

Las dicotomias en el derecho 183leticiA boniFAz AlFonzo

1. Marco Terico. 1832. Problemas especficos del derecho. 1883. Igualdad/ Desigualdad _ Igualdad/Diferencia. 200

Libre circulacin de personas: alcance y lmites 205cAloGero pizzolo

1. Nociones preliminares. 2052. La cuestin en la Unin Europea. 2073. La cuestin en el Mercosur. 2314. La cuestin en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones (CAN). 2435. Consideraciones finales. 249

Secunda ParteDERECHOS HUMANOS E INTEGRACIN REGIONAL

Derechos humanos y democracia como factor de integracin regional pag. 253vctor M. MArtnez bull Goyri

1. Introduccin. 2532. La democracia en Amrica Latina. 2603. El desarrollo constitucional de los derechos humanos. 2654. El obstculo de las condiciones sociales. 269

El control en el sistema interamericano de derechos humanos.Hacia una restructuracin del sistema. 275MAnuel becerrA rAMrez

1. Introduccin. 2752. El control de convencionalidad. 2773. Del Caso Almonacid a la evolucin actual del CC. 2784. Hasta dnde pueden llegar los efectos de las sentencias de la Corte IDH? 2835. Control sobre el control? 2856. Los minus en el sistema interamericano. 2877. Hacia el fortalecimiento de la Corte IDH. 2898. Conclusiones. 292

La relacin entre el mbito jurisprudencial internacional y nacional sobre derechos humanos 293luiS cAStillo crdovA

1. Introduccin. 2932. El mbito jurisprudencial nacional: La posicin jurdica del TC. 2943. El TC como comisionado del Poder constituyente. 2974. El TC como Supremo intrprete y controlador de la constitucionalidad. 2995. El TC como creador de derecho constitucional. 3036. La posicin jurdica de la Corte IDH. 3067. La Corte IDH como Comisionada del Legislador internacional. 3098. La Corte IDH como intrprete vinculante de la CADH. 3109. La Corte IDH como creadora de derecho convencional. 31710. La Corte IDH como controladora de convencionalidad.

El juicio de convencionalidad. 32611. Las consecuencias de declarar inconvencional una actuacin estatal. 328

12. Implicancias de las posiciones jurdicas de la Corte IDH y del TC. pag. 33113. Puede la Corte IDH interpretar la Constitucin nacional

y realizar un juicio de constitucionalidad? 33314. Puede el TC interpretar la CADH y realizar control convencional? 33615. A modo de conclusin: No es un mero juego de palabras. 340

Los derechos humanos en el Mercosur 343AndreA MenSA Gonzlez

1. Consideraciones prelimares. 3432. Los derechos humanos en la normativa mercosurea. 3453. Antecedentes en materia de derechos humanos. 3494. Declaracin socio-laboral del Mercosur

(Ro De Janeiro, 10 de diciembre de 1998). 3525. Protocolo de Asuncin sobre compromiso con la promocin

y proteccin de los derechos humanos del Mercosur. 3556. Campaa de informacin y prevencin del delito de trata

de personas - Decisin cmc n 12/06. 3567. Observatorio de la democracia del Mercosur. 3578. Instituto social del Mercosur. 3579. Acuerdo entre los estados parte del Mercosur y estados asociados

sobre cooperacin regional para la proteccin de los derechos de nios, nias y adolescentes en situacin de vulnerabilidad. 358

10. Instituto de polticas pblicas de derechos humanos del Mercosur. 35911. Solicitud de opinin consultiva ante la corte interamericana de derechos

humanos presentada por la Argentina, Brasil, Uruguay Y Paraguay. 36212. Conclusion. 364

Hacia la integracin regional a travs de los derechos fundamentales:el caso de la unin europea como historia de un xito 367SuSAnA SAnz cAbAllero

1. Introduccin. 3672. Evolucin. El vaco de los tratados constitutivos. 3683. El Tribunal de Justicia como motor de la integracin europea:

su liderazgo en la proteccin de los derechos fundamentales. 3724. Opciones para salvar la laguna del derecho originario

en materia de derechos fundamentales. 3985. Aportacin del Tratado de Lisboa a la integracin

de los derechos fundamentales en Europa. 4106. Conclusiones. 415

Integracin regional, reformas a la justicia y respeto del estndarinternacional de derechos humanos en los procesos penales seguidoscontra indgenas movilizados socialmente pag. 417JuAn JorGe FAundeS peAFiel

1. Introduccin 4172. Reformas a la Justicia y procesos de integracin en Amrica Latina.

Algo ms que un horizonte de Derechos Humanos. 4233. La criminalizacin de la demanda mapuche

una crtica poltica o un problema de derecho? 4384. Principales conclusiones del estudio de casos en Chile. 451

Derechos sociales e integracin 477luz pAcheco zerGA

1. Introduccin. 4772. Los derechos humanos de primera generacin. 4793. Los derechos humanos de segunda generacin. 4864. Los derechos sociales en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. 4925. Los derechos de tercera generacin en la CAN y en la UE. 4976. Los cnones de interpretacin y aplicacin de los derechos

sociales y de solidaridad en los procesos de integracin. 5027. Conclusiones. 510

Las patentes en medicina y su vnculo con el derechoa la salud como un derecho humano integral 515iliAnA rodrGuez SAntibez

1. Introduccin. 5152. Del origen de la propiedad al concepto de la propiedad industrial. 5193. El rgimen jurdico de las patentes en el mbito internacional. 5264. Disposiciones internacionales que generan correlacin del binomio

propiedad industrial y derechos humanos en la sociedad del conocimiento. 5385. La diferencia de criterios entre pases desarrollados y menos desarrollados. 5436. Conclusiones. 549

The integration of religion within the European Union 551hedley chriSt

1. Introduction. 5512. The Meaning of Religion and Religious Bodies. 5523. A Dialogue Between Religious Bodies and the European Union. 555

4. Religious freedom. pag. 5595. Lacit Positive et Lacit Neutre. 5676. EU Position Concerning Third Countries. 5697. Conclusion. 570

tercera PartePERSPECTIVAS DE INTEGRACIN

Private law instruments as way of EU regional integration 575vAlentinA colcelli

1. Instruments of private law and incentivising of regional processin European Union. 575

2. Individual rights as construction of the EU legal system. 5783. A joint reconstruction between liability in horizontal

and vertical relationships. 5824. Discretion and personal non-contractual liability. 5855. The guarantee of the EU legal system troughs the contractual

liability and compensation for damages suffered. 5866. Non-wrongful conduct of Member States and recovery

of sums paid but not due. 5887. Unimplemented Directives in the relationships between private individuals:

a control system at the discretion of Member States. 5908. Conclusion. 594

Propiedad intelectual en la integracin de chile a los mercadosinternacionales. El desafo de la preservacin de los derechos indgenassobre su patrimonio intangible pag. 599hellen t. pAcheco corneJo

1. Introduccin. 5992. Expansin de las normas de Propiedad Intelectual. 6033. Patrimonio intangible de los Pueblos Indgenas. 6184. Jurisprudencia asociada al tema. 6235. Sugerencias y conclusiones. 630

El nuevo reglamento europeo de proteccin de datos:hacia un derecho uniforme supranacional 631eMilio Su llinS

1. La necesidad de una proteccin de datos personales uniforme para toda Europa. 631

2. Legitimacin del tratamiento de los datos personales: prohibicin del consentimiento tcito. pag. 634

3. El derecho a la informacin y los derechos de los nios. 6374. Derechos de acceso, rectificacin y cancelacin:

la cuestin de la portabilidad y del derecho al olvido. 6395. El responsable del tratamiento y sus obligaciones:

no hay que notificar los ficheros. 6426. Encargado del tratamiento: obligatoriedad del encargado independiente

o delegado de proteccin de datos. 6457. Seguridad de los datos, evaluacin de riesgos y violaciones de datos. 6488. Las P. E.T.: proteccin de la intimidad desde el diseo y por defecto. 6509. Las autoridades de control: el principio de ventanilla nica europea. 65110. Simplificacin de los flujos transnacionales de datos:

decisiones de adecuacin y normas empresariales vinculantes. 653

Notas actuales en torno a la sustraccin internacional de menorespor parte de uno de sus progenitores y la mediacin 657nuriA Gonzlez MArtn

1. Introduccin. 6572. Gua de Buenas Prcticas en Mediacin. 6733. Mediacin familiar internacional: desafos y especializacin. 6824. Desafos para el Derecho Internacional Privado

Cooperacin entre Autoridades. 6835. Derecho aplicable o conflictos de leyes. 6866. Asuntos migratorios. pag. 6897. Cargos penales. 6908. Especializacin y formacin. 6969. La distancia y la tecnologa de comunicacin

(Online Dispute Resolution -ODR-). 71010. Conclusiones. 724

Sobre la indemnizacin expropiatoria (pretium emptionis)en la experiencia romana 727AndreA triSciuoGlio

1. Premisa. 7272. Indemnizacin expropiatoria en las fuentes jurdicas. 7313. Observaciones finales. 740

AndreA SASSi* (1)

PREAMBLE

The present work is one of the outcomes of the Research and Information Project IR&RI Individual Rights and Regional Integration, funded by the EACEA (Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency) in the context of the Jean Monnet LifeLong Learning Programme of the European Union.

The idea of the Project comes from the scientific cooperation between the Universit degli Studi di Perugia and the Tecnolgico de Monterrey (Departa-mento de Derecho, Campus de Ciudad de Mxico).

The two Universities, during the last five years, have been studying the legal and social implications of the processes of international and regional integra-tion, both in Europe and Latin America.

Several events (summerschool, seminar, congress), publications (books and reviews), exchange programmes of lecturers and students and other activities have been carried out.

Especially, one important result of that cooperation was the establishment of the Doctorate Course Knowledge-Based Society and the Legal Discipline of the Common Market: Interdisciplinary Aspects of the European and interna-tional Integration.

In this framework the two Universities have submitted to the EACEA the Project IR&RI which aims at promoting the reflection about how the process of the international integration may impact, at different level, to the elaboration of the application of the individual rights.

The starting point of such a reflection was the experience of legal system of the European Union, which has been built on the recognition of the rights

(1)* Coordinator of the Doctorate Course Knowledge-Based Society and the Legal Discipline of the Common Market: Interdisciplinary Aspects of the European and inter-national Integration, Universit degli Studi di Perugia

14 a. sassi

directly to the natural persons and other legal subjects, since the Van Gen en Loos case-law. Such individual rights are enforced by the Court of Justice. The enforceability of the right supports the primaut of the supranational legal system and contributes to the European integration.

The European Union primarily concerned with economic actors and the free market. Now the community laws impact on the lives of its citizens and they regulate matters regarding the personal sphere of the people (like the familiar relationships, the status of persons, social rights, et.). Such an impact has been enhancing in application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the Euro-pean Union and of the European Convention on Human Rights, which has been constitutionalised by the article 6 Treaty EU.

On the other hand, one can observe that also in the other processes of re-gional integration, the individual rights are, at the same time, the aim and the instrument of the cooperation between States and legal system.

Is the case of the regional integration put in place in Latin America.As happened in the Europe, such processes are inspired by economic rea-

sons: Mercosur, Comunidad Andina, TLCAN (Tratado de Libre Comercio de Amrica del Norte), SICA (Sistema de Integracin de Centro Amrica), etc. born in order to establish common regional markets.

Howsoever the Latin America Region (or Regions) is developing other kinds of integrations, in particular those concerning cultural and political aspects (see the recent experience of Unasur).

The regional organisations in that area are focusing their attention to exclu-sively economic aspects of the integration. Mercosur, SICA and the Comuni-dad Andina, for example, take into consideration the safeguard of the environ-ment, and the protection of the workers and of the consumers; other aspects have been considering like the harmonisation of the educational systems.

Moreover the Countries of the Latin America stipulated between them a Convention on Human Rights which is granting the democratic and cultural development of the entire Continent.

The Corte Interamericana de los Derchos Humanos and the other suprana-tional Courts of the Regions (like the Tribunal de la Comunidad Andina y el Tribunal Permanente del Mercosur) support those regional integration pro-cesses.

15preamble

The regional Courts, which take as model the European Courts (The ECHR and the Court of Justice), are elaborating legal notions which are very impor-tant in a legal integration of the Continent. In particular such Courts recognise rights and other kinds of legal positions of the subjects, in particular of the natural persons.

The Project IR&RI aimed at studying the influence of the legal integration on the individual rights arising from the several branches of law, mainly: public and administrative law; civil law; procedural law; penal and fiscal law; labour law; commercial law.

Furthermore, the research had to take into consideration several aspects of the legal integration processes, as those concerning the general theory, the phi-losophy of law, the history of law.

Therefore, in order to achieve the aims of the Projects was needed to bring together scholars with different skills, coming from universities both European and Latin American and, from the different regional blocks of the American continent.

In the end, the scholars involved in the Project, who contributed to the pub-lications and the events, were more than 60, belonging to more than 20 uni-versities of several European and American Countries: Universit degli Studi di Perugia, Sapienza Universit di Roma, Instituto Tecnolgico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey CCM, Universidad de Alcal de Henares, Univer-sitt Regensburg, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Universidad de Piura, University of Brighton, Universidad Catlica de Temuco, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Penales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Escuela Libre de Derecho, Universidad de la Frontera, Universidad de La Sabana, Universidad Anhuac, Universit degli Studi di Catania, Universidad de Murcia, Universidad Carlos Herrera (Valencia), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (Madrid), Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universit degli Studi di Torino.

Taking into consideration the role of the Courts in the legal integration pro-cess, it was important to involve judicial institutions and professionals. Indeed the research group also includes judges and other officials and lawyers operat-ing within bodies as Tribunal Federal de Justicia Fiscal y Administrativa (M-xico); Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nacin (Mxico); Consejo Superio de la Magistratura and the judicial bodies of the Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires;

16 a. sassi

Tribunal de Justicia del Estado de Esprito Santo (Brazil); Academia Mexicana de Derecho Fiscal.

The results of such cooperation are an anthology of the papers of the schol-ars participating to the research and a dictionary including more than 100 en-tries concerning the topics related to the individual rights and regional integra-tion. The latter work intends provide the scholars and the professionals (in particular judges, lawyers, officers) with an instrument rigorous but easy to use, showing the rights recognised by two regions of the world.

Much more important has been the result to establish a network of scholars and professionals passionate about the idea of building an integration between rights, nations and people.

The hope is that the research work carried out under the Project will be the base of the future analyses, putting in evidence the importance of the com-parison and cross fertilization between the different approaches in the regional legal integration.

A special tanks goes to the members of the scientific committee who, with prestige and friendship, made possible the realization of the activities of the Project: Rainar Arnold (Universitt Regensburg); Hadley Christ (University of Brighton); Valentina Colcelli (Universit degli Studi di Perugia), Juan J. Faundes (Universidad Catlica de Temuco), Manuel Hallivis Pelayo (Tribunal Federal de Justicia Fiscal y Administrativa, Mxico, D.F.); Vctor M. Martinez Bulle-Goyri (Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico), Carlos Francisco Molina del Pozo (Universidad de Alcal de Henares), Juan P. Pampillo Balio (Red In-ternacional de Juristas para la Integracin Americana), Hellen T. Pacheco (Uni-versidad de la Frontera), Luz Pacheco Zerga (Universidad de Piura), Calogero Pizzolo (Universidad de Buenos Aires), Antonio Palazzo (Universit degli Studi di Perugia), Emilio Su Llins (Universidad Complutense de Madrid); Susana Sanz Caballero (Universidad Carlos Herrera); Andrea Sassi (Universit degli Studi di Perugia), Francesco Scaglione (Universit degli Studi di Perugia); Gio-vanni Semeraro (Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi); Stefania Stefanelli (Universit degli Studi di Perugia); Ferdinando Treggiari (Universit degli Studi di Perugia); Andrea Trisciuoglio (Universit degli Studi di Torino).

introduccin

MArio i. lvArez ledeSMA (*)roberto cippitAni (**)

INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND MODELSOF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION(***)

SuMMAry: 1. Individual rights and legal system. 2. Legal subjects within the interna-tional law. 3. The internationalisation of human rights. 4. The regional model. 5. The courts and the construction of the regional legal order. 6. The regional ap-proach to legal interpretation. 7. The supranational model of integration. 8. From the economic rights toward the status of European Unions citizenship. 9. Individual rights in the international integration processes: some conclusive observations.

1. Individual rights and legal system.

Individual rights, a concept today so basically linked to the idea of legal system itself (1), could be studied from various perspectives by all human sciences (2).

Even if one intends to consider the individual rights only from the legal perspective, the elaboration of a general concept is very difficult, due to the

(*) Tecnolgico de Monterrey. (**) Universit degli Studi di Perugia. (***) This paper arises from the joint collaboration of the two authors. Anyway the

paragraphs should be attributed as follows: the paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 9 to Mario I. Alvarez Ledesma; the paragraphs 4,5,6,7,8 to Roberto Cippitani.

(1) The legal systems are built on particular representations of the world which the jurists call cases. The case could be analised trough its composing elements defined as subjects, objects, conduct (prescribed, prohibited, permitted, et.), interests, etc. In particular, the cases regulated by the law indicate a legal subject who is expected to have a specific conduct and (al least) an other one who is entitled, who has the rights, to claim such a conduct. Therefore, the reference to a subject (the Zurechnung for Hans Kelsen) has the technical function to attribute the legal consequences arising from the fulfilment or not fulfilment of a norm. The concept of rights, from the formal point of view, arises from that need of subjective reference, without which the norm is not applicable.

(2) See W. ceSArini SForzA, Diritto soggettivo, in Enc. dir., XII, Milano, 1964, p. 659 ss.

20 mario i. lvarez ledesma, roberto cippitani

different definitions which may be found within the various legal systems and ages.

In the ancient age, the roman law was more than a notion of the right referred to a subject. It was a set of actions which were used in different manners, granting the protection of the patrimonial interests of the legal subjects (pater familias and other sui juris persons; few typologies of legal subjects different from the natural persons).

In the Middle Ages, at the centre of the social ideology were not the per-sons but the categories (according to Jacques Le Goff: nobles, merchants, farmers and religious) (3), to which they belonged on the basis of strict and unchangeable criteria (4).

During the eighteenth century, the political philosophy inspired by theo-ries as the jusnaturalism and contractualism, aimed to establish new princi-ples of political legitimacy to justify the power of the States.

The most important part of this theory of justice, is that which com-pletely outlines new moral, political and legal principles focused on the hu-man person, a being endowed with reason and moral attributes, who is en-titled to rights, such as autonomy and human dignity (5).

The rights of the law of nature were formalised in the Dclaration des Droits de lhomme et du citoyen of 1789 and in the contemporary Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitutions of the United States of America.

Moreover in Europe such solemn declarations had not great conse-quences on the national legal systems, with exception of the formal refer-ence included in the Constitutions octroyes of the XIX century, considered as limitations to the powers of the absolute monarchies.

The Enlightenment introduced also the idea that the State had to act in order to solve the problems affecting the society, as in the thought of Ros-

(3) J. le GoFF, LHomme mdival, Paris, 1994. (4) G. AlpA, Status, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analti-

co de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, Roma-Perugia-Mxico, 2013. (5) See M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, Derechos Humanos y Polticas Pblicas: la funcin de los derechos

humanos en las polticas pblicas, in A. roSSi, l. e. zAvAlA (coord. by), Polticas Pblicas y Derechos Humanos en Mxico, Escuela de Graduados en Administracin Pblica y Poltica Pblica del Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mxico, 2010, pp. 117-153.

21individual rights and models of international cooperation

seau and Condorcet (6), in particular the poverty, as proposed by Luis Vives (De Subventione Pauperum Sive de Humanis Necessitatibus of the 1526).

However, until the twentieth century, the concepts of individual rights and the duties of the States were conceived more as a political and moral plan (7), rather than as poles of a legal relationship between State and the legal subjects.

The legal concept of right had greater development in the private law.During the nineteenth century, the European jurists focused their studies

on the roman law, considered as the higher expression of the human way of understanding legal relationships (as Bernhard Windscheid says in his Lehrbch des Pandektenrechts), in order to give coherence to the extreme frag-mentation of the local legislations.

Therefore the Pandectists, for the first time, used the notion of sys-tem referred to the law as whole, introducing the concept of subjective right, as the pivot of the system itself.

According to Windscheid the subjective right is to be considered as power of the will recognised by the law to a legal subject. Such a power may be also attributed by the contracts or other acts, anyway provided by the law.

The idea of the rights as power of will was elaborated under the private law, to outline the discipline of the relationship between private persons, especially the relationships concerning the patrimony.

As a result of that tradition, the civil codes have been dealing with pat-rimonial relationships, concerning obligations and property rights (see for example the thought of Savigny in the System des heutigen rmischen Rechts), and the instruments in order to transfer them from a subject to another one.

Fields such as the family law, which have not only patrimonial implica-tions, were considered only from the patrimonial point of view.

(6) G. peceS-bArbA MArtinez and oth., Historia de los Derrechos fundamentales, t. II, Siglio XVII, vol. I, El contexto social y cultural de los derechos. Los rasgos generales de evolucin, Madrid, 2001, p. 211.

(7) In particular see the history of the elaboration of the rights of poor people: b. tierney, Medieval Poor Law, Berkeley-Los Angeles, 1959; G. couvreur, Les pauvres. Ont-ils des droit?, Roma, 1961, p. 91 ss.; K. penninGton, The History of Rights in Western Thought, in Emory Law Journal 47, 1998, 237 ss.


Nevertheless, not only the patrimonial interests were emerging. As An-tonio Palazzo affirms, during the entire history of the legal culture, it is possible to identify the use of the so called permanencies (8), fundamental values of the legal systems, which in the past were expressed through prin-ciples such as Good faith or Equity.

The first half of the twentieth century was the moment of the exacerbated nationalisms and authoritarianisms that led to the destructive wars and to the mortification of the rights.

As result of that terrible period, the Constitutions approved after the Second World War, anticipated by the brief but significant experience of Weimer, the change from the notion of the individual rights, establishing the relationship between State and human rights at the base of a New Constitutionalism (9).

Thus was born the rule of law (10), legally binding to respect and to protect political, civil, but also social rights, based on the principles of solidarity and of the effective (not only formal) equality (11).

The constitutionalisation had several consequences on the legal concept of individual rights.

The Constitutions sated that the rights must be recognised not only to the citizens, but also to all the people (12).

The protected rights do not deal only with the patrimonial sphere of the persons. In this case, the patrimony becomes just a dimension of the perso-nality (13).

(8) See A. pAlAzzo, Permanencias and A. SASSi, Derechos patrimonialmente neutros, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(9) r. SepulvedA iGuniz, El Reencuentro de los Derechos Humanos y el Estado, a travs de la Constitucin, in Revista de Investigaciones Jurdicas de la Escuela Libre de Derecho, 2004.

(10) See, among others, r. SeplvedA iGuniz, El Estado de Derechos, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(11) M. MAzziotti, Diriti sociali, in Enc. dir., Milano, vol. XII, 1964, p. 804 ss. See also, r. cippitAni, Solidaridad, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.; Id. La solidariet giuridica tra pubblico e privato, Roma-Perugia, 2010.

(12) See L. FerrAJoli, Derechos y Garantas, La Ley del Ms Dbil,, 3 edicin, Madrid, 2002, pp. 116 f.

(13) Regarding to the impact of the consitutional principles on private law, among the


As matter of fact, the patrimonial rights are focused on the development of the natural persons and they have to be consistent with the principles of the constitutional systems, for instance: solidarity.

The Constitutions recognise and formalise the interests considered Fun-damental within the domestic legal system. Indeed, the fundamental rights are only eventually linked to the will of their owners. They are not disposable under the relationships between the parties, including the contractual ones.

In the contemporary law, individual rights are the base and the principal aim to be achieved by the democratic State (14). There must be a strong link and interdependence between the Rule of Law and the protection of the individual rights (15).

In modern democratic societies these rights are the main criterion of jus-tice, whose basic function, in the theory of Rawls, is to grant the performance of social institutions (16).

Human rights, by their incorporation in the Constitutions, are to become the paradigm of the legal certainty for States that recognize them, thus condi-tioning, justifying and monitoring the use of public powers.

The perspective is no longer the mere recognition of the rights established by Laws of Nature, but the positive obligation of the State to comply with the individual rights.

Even though there are some difficulties, the individual rights established under the Constitutions have been considered applicable in order to regu-late all kinds of legal relationships, both horizontal (between private legal

others, see p. perlinGeri, Il diritto civile nella sua legalit costituzionale, Napoli, ESI, 1991; S. rodot, Ideologie e tecniche della riforma del diritto civile, Napoli, 2007.

(14) On the necessary link between democracy and human rights, see in this book, v. M. MArtnez bull Goyri, Derechos humanos y democracia como factor de integracin regional.

(15) A. prez luo, Los derechos fundamentales, Madrid, 1991, p. 19. (16) In the original thought of John Rawls, justice is a key element for the functioning

of the basic structure of society, that is, the free market, the family, the private ownership of the means of production, and so on. Justice, Rawls explains, is not a matter of strict morality, but rather an attitude, belief or state of mind that facilitates performance of these institutions, which corresponds to the distribution of fundamental rights and duties, as well as the distribution of the advantages that result from social cooperation. See J. rAWlS, A Theory of Justice, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1980, p. 4-7.


subjects) and vertical (between legal subjects and legal administrations) (17).

2. Legal subjects within the international law.

After the birth of the national States, the domestic legal systems were considered as autonomous, whereas the autonomy is the consequence of the Sovereignty, that is to say its supreme law making power and the pow-er to comply or not with the international law.

While Grotius thought that relationships between Nations arose from the natural law (the Law of the Nations within his work De jure belli ac pacis), adhering it modern international law is exclusively based on the will of the States and it is regulated by the acts of autonomy such as the treaties concluded between governments.

Henkin argued that almost all nations observe almost all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations most of the time (18).

This is an empirical observation but generally speaking, international law lacks bodies exercising effective legislative, executive, or judiciary powers and it is sometimes violated with impunity (19).

The international law is a type of coordination law (20), regulating the inter-States relationships (21), which establishes the respective competences

(17) The constitutional principles did not immediately influence the interpretative prac-tice, see F. oSt, Droit et intrt, vol. II, Entre droit et non-droit: lintrt, Bruxelles, 1990, p. 161. In Italy, for expample, some authors argued that the constitutional norms establishing the social rights were mere programmatic directive to be implemented by the legislative power (See v. criSAFulli, Costituzione e protezione sociale, in La Costituzione e le sue disposizioni di prin-cipio, Milano, 1952, p. 135; A. bArettoni Arleri, Lassistenza nellattuale momento normativo e interpretativo, in Riv. infort., 1975, II, p. 410 ss.; p. cAlAMAndrei, La illegittimit costituzionale delle leggi nel processo civile, Padova, 1950, p. 28 s.; R. luciFredi, La nuova Costituzione italiana raffrontata con lo Statuto albertino e vista nel primo triennio di sua applicazione, Milano, 1952, p. 275)

(18) l. henKin, How Nations Behave, 1979. (19) J.l. GoldSMith, e.A. poSner, The Limits of International Law, New York, 2005, p.

13; see also A.t. GuzMAn, How International Law Works. A Rational Choice Theory, New York, 2008,

(20) C. pizzolo, Derecho e integracion regional, Buenos Aires, 2010, p. 5. (21) See the definitions as those provided by b. conForti, Diritto internazionale, Napoli,

2010, p. 3 ff and c. roSSeAu, Derecho internacionl pplico, Barcelona, 1966, p. 1 ff.


and mutual obligations. The compliance with these obligations depends ex-clusively on the willingness of the States themselves.

Modern International Law contains several rules aiming to assure coor-dination with Domestic Legal Systems. These rules are summarised in the sentence pacta sunt servanda which obliges the State to adequate its internal legal system to international norms (see Article 26 of Convention on the Law of the Treaties) (22); the principle of concordance in the interpretation of the international treaties, which obliges to prefer the meanings common to the parties of the international legal instruments (23); the good faith prin-ciple which needs to take into consideration also the interests of the other parties, etc.

Moreover, the effectiveness of the international law is granted by na-tional dispositions. For example, under the Italian Constitution, the article 10 provides that the legal system has to comply with the generally recog-nised international law, thus including also the customary rules.

The preamble of the French Constitution of 27 October 1946 estab-lishes that La Rpublique franaise, fidle ses traditions, se conforme aux rgles du droit public international.

Even stronger is the effect of the international rules granted by the German Basic Law which sets out The general rules of international law shall be an integral part of federal law. They shall take precedence over the laws and directly create rights and duties for the inhabitants of the federal territory (Article 25).

However, the relationship between legal systems is based on intergov-ernmental logic and it is regulated by international arrangements, which only indirectly impact on domestic law.

Indeed, the legislative monopoly of each State does not allow the direct applicability of the international law to the legal relationships in the do-mestic law.

This situation does not admit any exceptions, not even in the case of the

(22) As commentary of the Article 26 of the Convention of Weiner, see J. SAlMon, Jean, Observance of Treaties, Article 26, in O. corten, p. Klein (coord.), The Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties, A Commentary, Oxford, Vol. I, Part III, pp. 659-685

(23) M. hAlliviS pelAyo, Hacia una homologacin metodolgica del control de convencionalidad en Latinoamrica, in this work.


international norms which are defined as self-executing, as well as those considered belonging to the jus cogens. The latter ones, in accordance with article 53 of Convention on the Law of the Treaties, could be defined as a peremptory norm of general international law that is accepted and rec-ognized by the international community of States as a whole, as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character.

Both the self-executing dispositions and the jus cogens mainly affect the relationships between States and they are not directly applicable in the na-tional law, if the States do not agree upon it.

Therefore the lack of enforcement is a traditional feature of the inter-national law, which is partially solved by the establishment of international courts (the so called formal enforcement).

Surely the international courts support the implementation and they may serve to establish or clarify the substantive rules of the international law (24).

Nevertheless, the work of such courts is affected by several problems, such as when tribunals exist, as they typically do not have busy dockets (25). This is because of the limits to bring complaints, which are reserved to States or private but only after a sever filter controlled by the States. The insufficient ability of private parties to initiate proceedings entails the lack of effectiveness of the international courts (26).

Furthermore, even the presence of the international courts, the non-fulfilment of the obligations arising from the international law may lead to the international liability of the State, rather than to the direct application in the domestic law (27).

(24) See A.t. GuzMAn, How International Law Works. A Rational Choice Theory, New York, 2008, p. 68; A. dAnner, When Courts Make Law: How the International Criminal Tribunals Recast the Laws of War, in Vanderbilt Law Review, 2006, 59, pp. 1-65.

(25) A.t. GuzMAn, How International Law Works. A Rational Choice Theory, New York, 2008, p. 63.

(26) r.e. Scott, p.b. StephAn, The Limits of Leviathan. Contract Theory and the Enforcement of International Law, New York, 2006.

(27) c. pizzolo, Derecho e integracin regional, quoted, p. 17, who makes reference to the case law of the international arbitral tribunal, as the case Alabama of 1872, United King-dom vs. USA, decided by Arbitral Tribunal established in Geneve; see also the claim of indemnity decided in the case Chorzw, Germany vs. Poland, decided by The Permanent


In the context of the traditional international law, the intergovernmental treaties only indirectly influence the rights of the people.

The law applicable to natural persons and to other legal subjects is do-mestic law.

The internal rules are applicable not only to the citizens, but they also discipline the foreigners for the relationships subject to the domestic law of the hosting State. Under specific circumstances, when the relationship may have a connection with two or more legal systems, the solutions available are coherent with the intergovernmental approach. Either it will apply the so called international private law, which is a set of national criteria for solving potential conflicts between norms, or the case will be regulated by the international treaties, if transformed into domestic law.

In the framework of International Law, the competences of national judges belonging to different States and the enforcement of their acts, are exclusively provided by international instruments. Generally speaking, even if such an international instrument would exist, no transnational courts are appointed in order to solve the conflicts of competence (28).

3. The internationalisation of human rights.

After the second part of the twentieth century, along with the constitu-tionalisation of individual rights, another important legal phenomenon was put in place, which may be called internationalisation of the Rights.

The tragedies of the first part of Age of Extremes, as Hobsbawm called the previous century, led to the belief that an actual protection of individual rights, especially against the excessive power of the States, could be achieved only at international level (29).

Therefore, during the last decades, the protection of individual rights

Court of International Justice of 13 September 1928. (28) M. Munive pez, Conflicto de juridiccin, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (co-

ord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref. (29) The establishment of the international organisations, as instrument to achieve the

peace, is underlined, for example, in n. bobbio, Il problema della guerra e le vie della pace, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1984.


is not only an issue confined within the national borders, but it has to be approached from a Global Constitutionalism (30) or a Multilevel Constitu-tionalism as a necessary evolution of the national constitutions (31).

Together with the establishment of international organisations and trea-ties concerning economic fields, the States entered into international agree-ments related to the recognition and safeguard of the rights of the human beings (32).

Even if such protection was not absolutely new (33), the enormous de-velopment of the international instruments dealing with the human right is typical of our age.

Those instruments can be implemented in a context where the Interna-tional Law is characterised by a trend to the legalisation of transnational relations (34) due to the growing of the importance of international institu-tions (35).

In particular, the United Nations Charter of 1945 states in its preamble, just before the aim, to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, the need to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women, in order to pro-mote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom.

According to Luigi Ferrajoli the Charter of the United Nations repre-sents the transition from the international law based on bilateral relation-

(30) See J.e. eSpinozA de loS MonteroS Snchez, Contitucionalismo global, in Diccionario Histrico Judicial de Mxico, Ideas e Instituciones, Mxico, 2010, Tomo I, p. 236.

(31) See J.e. eSpinozA de loS MonteroS Snchez, Contitucionalismo global, in Diccionario Histrico Judicial de Mxico, Ideas e Instituciones, Mxico, 2010, Tomo I, p. 236.

(32) For an overview of the international institutions dealing with the matter of indi-vidual rights, see, in this book, A. Gutirrez Gonzlez, La integracin regional y los derechos individuales a la luz del derecho internacional y de integracin.

(33) J.L. GoldSMith and E.A. poSner (The Limits of International Law, New York, 2005, p. 117) quotes, among all, the Peace of Westphalia (1648), protecting the religious freedoms.

(34) J. GoldStein, M. KAhler, r. o. KeohAne, A. M. SlAuGhter, Introduction: Legaliza-tion and World Politics, in International Organization, 2000, Vol. 54, No. 3, Legalization and World Politics, pp. 385-399.

(35) K. W. Abbott, d. SnidAl, Why States Act through Formal International Organizations, in The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 42, No. 1, Feb., 1998, pp. 3-32.


ships between States up to a true international legal system (36), in which not only the States but also people become subjects.

The people own individual rights recognised at supranational level, which have to be observed and protected within the domestic law.

The Article 1, paragraph 3, of the Charter commits the State to collabo-rate to the end of promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. Indeed, according to the internationalist doctrine, the States, as the modern constitutions provide at the international level have the positive obligation to implement the human rights, not only the duty of abstention for any action that would affect them (37).

In order to avoid any doubt about the identification and the contents of such human rights, the United Nations approved the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on 1948.

The role of the human rights in the international relationships is showed in the preamble of the Declaration, as well as within the Charter: the rec-ognition and protection of the inalienable rights of all members of the human family have to be considered as the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.

Without the protection of peoples rights, as this is the most important message of the international legal sources, the peaceful collaboration be-tween States would not be possible.

The rights identified became the most important example of the jus cogens in a broken world into north and south, west and east, capitalistic and Marx-ist economies.

The United Nations and the other international organisations (linked or not to the United Nations organisms, as UNICEF and OIL) have been promoting, during the last sixty years, the stipulation of other important treaties in the matter of human rights, such as those protecting the children or the workers.

(36) l. FerrAJoli, Ms all de la soberana y la ciudadana: un constitucionalismo global, in M. cAr-bonell, r. vzquez, Estado constitucional y globalizacin, UNAM, Mxico, 2001, pp. 313-318.

(37) S. SAnz cAbAllero, Las obligaciones positivas del Estado en Derecho Internacional Pblico y Derecho Europeo, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, quoted.


The recognition of human rights at the international level has the impor-tant function of establishing the standards acceptable for the majority of the Nations in the world.

Although there are differences between cultures and legal definitions, it is possible to identify common values (the permanencies according to Antonio Palazzo) by which human rights are made universal by the Inter-national Law (38).

The Declaration on Human Rights of the United Nations is universal and has to be considered as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations so that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and edu-cation to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures. National and international rights secure their universal and effec-tive recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.

Article 1 of the Declaration sets out that All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

Today, it is generally accepted that the international legal sources, their application and interpretation, identify a corpus iuris of human rights, which interacts with the national legal systems and which is protected by the principle of the international liability of the States (39).

Several domestic legal systems provide a more strong engagement, in respect to the application of the general international law, in case of norms dealing with human rights.

It is the case of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 (Article 10.1), which sets forth that Las normas relativas a los derechos fundamentales y a las libertades que la Constitucin reconoce se interpretarn de conformidad con la Declaracin Uni-

(38) v. M. MArtnez bull Goyri, Estndares internacionales de derechos humanos, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e inte-gracin jurdica, quoted.

(39) See d. odonnell, Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos. Normativa, juris-prudencia y doctrina de los sistemas universal e interamericano, Oficina en Mxico del Alto Comi-sionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos-Escuela de Graduados en Administracin Pblica y Poltica Pblica del Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mxico, 2007, pp. 55-78; J.J. FoundeS, Corpus juris internacional de derechos humanos, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.


versal de Derechos Humanos y los tratados y acuerdos internacionales sobre las mismas materias ratificados por Espaa (40).

The British Human Rights Act of 2000 authorises the British Courts to directly implement the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights.

The internationalist doctrine shows how the matter of the human rights has been changing the international legal approach concerning the legal in-terpretation.

In Latin America many Constitutions set forth the obligation of the State to observe the human rights as established under the international treaties (amongst others: Mexico, Colombia, Guatemala, Chile, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Brazil) (41).

As argued in the principle pro-persona, the universal character of hu-man rights is a fundamental hermeneutic instrument, so that the interpreta-tion will be more extensive in the case of rules recognising a human right and more restrictively where any limitation to those rights has to be ap-plied (42).

Therefore the universality of these rights means that national courts should apply the domestic law in a consistent manner with the international instruments.

Due to the importance of such a matter in the modern Constitution, it is broadly accepted that the international rules in this field and the interpreta-tion given by the international courts allows domestic judges to implement the international corpus iuris of human rights (43).

(40) See also the Article 40.2 Los nios gozarn de la proteccin prevista en los acuerdos internac-ionales que velan por sus derechos.

(41) d. ruedA AGuilAr, El fortalecimiento del sistema regional de Proteccin de los Derechos Hu-manos en Latino Amrica, p. 11-12, http://www.scjn.gob.mx/transparencia/Documents/Be-carios/Becarios_045.pdf.

(42) r. SeplvedA iGuniz, Principio pro persona, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(43) r.e. Scott, p.b. StephAn, The Limits of Leviathan. Contract Theory and the Enforcement of International Law, New York, 2006, quote the case-law of the Supreme Court of USA, especially the judgment Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain which has supported [542 U.S. 692 (2004)] the idea that the federal courts can use the international law; see also Medellin v. Dretke, 544 U.S. 660(2005); Roper v. Simmons [543 U.S. 551 (2005)].


Intergovernmental regional systems, such as the European and American Conventions on Human Rights, legal doctrine argues the application of the Drittwirkung (44), according to which the national courts apply the fundamen-tal rights in relationships between individuals (45).

As affirmed by Scott and Stephan International law was soft, in the sense that there existed no Hobbesian Leviathan to sanction default. The new approach, in contrast, allows private enforcement, employs independ-ent tribunal and courts to do the enforcing, and empowers those tribunals and courts to wield the same array of tools that domestic courts tradition-ally use to compel compliance with their decisions. International law has become hard law, with its own Leviathan.

However, such kind of interpretative approach does not lead to the amendment or to the disapplication of domestic law, which is the main legal source to be applied, also in the field of the human rights. According to many scholars the domestic courts never truly apply international law, but rather pick and choose among potentially applicable rules in a man-ner dominated by domestic jurisprudential, political, and methodological considerations (46). The absence of a supranational body able to coordinate domestic courts supports such a position.

Furthermore, the universality of the corpus of the human rights means also that the international standards have to be considered as a minimum acceptable compromise.

The effective application of those rights depends on the will of the States, in a pure intergovernmental approach. International lawyers point out that the treaties concerning human rights are expected to work as the

(44) l. cASSetti, Il diritto di vivere con dignit nella giurisprudenza della Corte Interamericana dei diritti umani, in Federalisimi.it, n. 23/2010, p. 15 s.

(45) See, for example D. SpielMAn, Leffet potentiel de la Convention europenne des droits de lhomme entre personnes prives, Bruylant, Luxembourg, 1995. In Italy the legal literature and the case-law affirm that the European Convention of Human Rights is directly applicable. See among others R. nunin, Le norme programmatiche della CEDU e lordinamento italiano, in Riv. int. dir. uomo, 3, 1991, p. 719 ff. For he case-law see for example: Corte di Cassazione, 27 May 1975, no. 2129, in Gius. it., 1976, I, p. 970; Id. 2 February 2007, no. 2247, in Nuova giur. civ. comm., 2007, p. 1195.

(46) r.e. Scott, p.b. StephAn, The Limits of Leviathan, ref., p. 142.


other international formal agreements: the violation of those treaties does not have severe consequences for the defaulting State (47).

4. The Regional Model.

The international relationships between States may establish forms of permanent collaboration, as it is the case of the associations between na-tions pertaining to specific regions of the world.

To identify this model of international collaboration, the legal doctrine uses the expression regional integration. The regional integration law tiene y debe tener suficiente autonoma de las otras ramas del Derecho (48).

An example of those associations could be found in all continents (49): mainly in Europe (European Union, Council of Europe) and in America (Comunidad Andina de Naciones CAN; Mercosur, Sistema de Integracin Centroamericana SICA; Mercado Comn del Caribe CARICOM; Unin de Naciones Suramericanas UNASUR; Cumbres Iberoamericanas; the Alianza del Pacfico; North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, or Tratado de Libre Comercio de Amrica del Norte TLCAN ); but also in Africa (Communaut conomique des tats de lAfrique Centrale CEEAC; Southern African Development Coordination Conference SAD-CC; Southern African Development Coordinating Conference SADC; Preferential trading area PTA; Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS) and Asia and Pacific Area (Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation APEC; South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SAARC; Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership).

Regional integration has the features of whatever form of international relationships, depending on the arrangements between governments.

However, two elements seem to differentiate the regional integrations

(47) J.l. GoldSMith, e.A. poSner, The Limits of International Law, New York, 2005, p. 130, who conclude that the modern human rights treaties do not significantly influence human rights behaviour of the States (p. 137).

(48) TPR Mercosur, Laudo No. 01/2005, p. 4. (49) For an overview and an analysis of the regional organisations, in particular in Eu-

rope and Latin America, see mainly C. pizzolo, Derecho e integracion regional, ref.


processes in the framework of international relationships: the contents and the intensity of the cooperation; the institutionalisation of the relationships and moreover, through the setting up of judicial or arbitral bodies.

These elements do not produce a modification in the internationalist paradigm, but rather strengthen transnational relationships.

According to the contents of regional integration, in comparison with other forms of international relations, the objectives of the Inter-State co-operation become more concrete, as well as the problems to be faced and the solutions to be elaborated.

In particular, the regional integrational processes are often induced (or justified) by economic reasons, because a greater movement of people, products and factors of production is able to increase the economic flows and to lead to the development of the region (50).

The construction of common markets or custom areas are a tactic in-strument to start the regional integration processes in order to reach more political strategic aims.

The Declaration of 9th May 1950 of the Foreign French Minister Schu-man, which is considered to be the starting point of the European inte-gration process, proposed that The pooling of coal and steel production should immediately provide for the setting up of common foundations for economic development. But the setting up of the common market of coal and steel is clearly a first step in the federation of Europe, and will change the destinies of those regions which have long been devoted to the manu-facture of munitions of war, of which they have been the most constant victims.

Similarly, in Latin America, the regional organisations as Mercosur, Naf-ta, Comunidad Andina, Sica aim to pursue the construction of an economic integration between the States of the same region.

The democracy, the peace, and the respect of human rights were at the base of the process of integration in South America as affirmed by the Declaration of Foz de Iguaz of 1985, signed by Argentina and Brazil and by the Acta de Amistad Argentino Brasilea en Democracia, Paz y Desarrollo of the

(50) See J. p. pAMpillo bAlio, Estado actual y perspectivas de la integracin jurdica en Amrica, in this book.


year 1986, which anticipated the Treaty of Asuncin of 1991 (51).Although the treaty establishing the Mercosur, as well as the European

Communities Treaties of the 1950s does not make any reference to the hu-man rights, other documents of the regional organisations put them at the base of the integration process (52), as the Declaracin Presidencial sobre Compro-miso Democrtico en el Mercosur of 1996, the Protocolo de Ushuaia of 1998, the Protocolo de Asuncin of 2005.

Likewise, according to the Comunidad Andina, the Acuerdo de Cartagena establishes a deep interconnection between the economic objectives of the CAN and the need to grant a permanent improvement of the level of the life for the inhabitants of the sub region (Article 1).

Furthermore, the Declaracin of the Consejo Presidencial Andino sobre Democ-racia e Integracin, signed in Santaf de Bogot the 7th August of 1998 states that CAN is a community of democratic nations and it respects the human rights and the fundamental freedoms.

The regional integration evidences the social aspects of the movement of the people, as those concerning the workers (53); the circulation of stu-dents and teachers (54); the rights of the indigenous populations (55), amongst others.

The regional integration processes may directly be referred to the topic of the human rights, as it happens in the cases of the Convencion amricana de los derechos humanos (56), and the European Convention on Human Rights

(51) See A. MenSA Gonzlez, Los derechos humanos en el Mercosur, in M. i. lvArez ledeS-MA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(52) About this topic, see: V. AbrAMovich, Derechos Humanos en el marco del proceso de inte-gracin regional en el Mercosur, in Democracia y Derechos, 2012, p. 6; J. cASAl, Los derechos humanos en los procesos de integracin, in Estudios Constitucionales, 2005; O. Giupponi, Derechos Humanos e Integracin en Amrica Latina, Valencia, 2006, p. 303.

(53) L. pAcheco zerGA, Trabajo, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(54) t. pAlerMo buti, M. F. burAlli viGnA, Integracin universitaria en el Mercosur, in Dic-cionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(55) See J.J. FAundeS, Pueblos indgenas como titulares de derechos humanos, in Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(56) See O. huertAS dAz, Convencin Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, in Diccionario Histrico Judicial de Mxico, Ideas e Instituciones, Mxico, 2010, Tomo I, p. 264.


(formally the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Funda-mental Freedoms). Those kinds of regional treaties do not seek a political integration, but they aim to establish continental standards in the applica-tion of human rights.

5. The courts and the construction of the Regional Legal Order.

In many cases, the international agreements, which provide forms of regional integration, appoint bodies responsible to control the application of the regional rules.

Such bodies may have judicial or arbitral nature (see the case of the Sis-tema Interamericano de proteccin de los derechos humanos which provides a Com-mission (57), composed by independent experts, and a regional Court).

In particular, an important role is played by the judicial institutions of the regional legal systems (58), both in Europe and Latin America: the Court of Justice of the European Union (hereinafter referred to as ECJ), the European Court of the Human Rights (ECHR); the Corte interamericana de los derechos humanos (Corte IDH); the Tribunal de Justicia de la Co-munidad Andina (TJCA); the Tribunal Permanente del Mercosur (TPR).

The regional courts have a specific reserved competence on the interpre-tation of the transnational law.

It is the case of the Corte IDH which, according to the Article 62.3 CADH tiene competencia para conocer de cualquier caso relativo a la interpretacin y aplicacin de las disposiciones de esta Convencin.

Normally, the regional courts have judicial competences (for example see Article 62.3 CADH) or advisory functions (see Article 64, par. 1, CADH).

In carrying out their functions, these Courts achieve two relevant results: the elaboration of the contents of the individual rights and the identifica-tion of a legal system of reference.

(57) See J.c. coStA, Comisin Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, in Diccionario Histrico Judicial de Mxico, ref., Tomo I, p. 185.

(58) Corte IDH, Opinin Consultiva, no. OC-1/82 of 24 September 1982, Otros trata-dos objeto de la funcin consultiva de la Corte (articulo 64 Convencin Americana sobre Derechos Humanos), par. 19.


Regional integration, even if it is only a more developed form of interna-tional relations, represents a true jump in quality in the impact of individual rights.

Indeed, the greater concreteness and proximity of the regional organisa-tions, as well as the presence of regional judicial or arbitral bodies, cause a more effective influence of the transnational law over the domestic one.

The interpretative activity within the regional system leads to identify the meaning and to develop the concepts related to the rights provided by the supranational legal sources.

As pointed out by TPR Mercosur, quoting the Advocate General of the Court of Justice of the European Union Paolo Mengozzi, the interpretation of the regional courts has led to a consider the persons and the enterprises as subject of the supranational legal systems (59).

In fact the Regional Model of human rights protection is more devel-oped than the universal one, for the role of the natural or legal persons have either in a procedure boost phase or implementation phase, of the ef-fects of judgments (60).

For instance, in the case law of the Corte IDH it is possible to find the definitions of the rights set forth by the Convencin Americana, such as free-dom of expression (Article 13) (61), religion (Article12), right of movement (Article 22) (62), the right to health (63), the right of association (Article 16),

(59) TPR Mercosur, Opinin Consultiva n. 1/2007, of 3 April 2007. (60) A. MArcheSi, Derechos humanos (proteccin internacional), in Diccionario Histrico Judicial de

Mxico: ideas e instituciones, ref.., Tomo I. (61) A. cAStillA Jurez KArloS, Libertad de expresin y derecho de acceso a la informacin en

el Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, Comisin Nacional de Derechos Humanos, Mxico, 2011, pp. 73.

(62) Corte IDH, 31 August 2004, Ricardo Canese/Paraguay, Serie C No. 111, which makes reference to O.N.U.

(63) Corte IDH 4 July 2006, Ximenses Lopes/ Brasil, Serie C No 149.


political rights (Article 23 and ff.) (64), the rights of women (65), of children (66), of immigrants (67).

Emblematic is the elaboration of the meaning of property right, recog-nised by Article 21 of the Convencin Americana.

In the case Yakye Axa vs. Paraguay (68), the Court has found Paraguay liable for failing to ensure the effective protection of the rights of an indig-enous community on the land where people live. According to the Court, the indigenous community has to be considered owner of their ancestral territories, because they have an economic, social and cultural relationship with the land. The protection of such kind of property rights is functional to grant the other human rights of the indigenous people: the right to life, the right to ethnic identity, the right to culture and recreation of it, the right to integrity and survival as indigenous community.

The idea of the Court of the property as a set of both material and im-material (political, symbolic, cultural) aspects is very interesting.

According to the Corte IDH, the notion of property of the Conven-tion has not to be considered in the same meaning arising from the tradition of the civil law, as the mere right to possess and exploit material goods (69).

Also in the case-law of the Court EDH it is possible to find an idea of property which is not the traditional one, at least in the Civil Law Countries.

(64) For example, Corte IDH, 6 Agust 2008, Castaeda Gutman/Estados Unidos Mexicanos, Serie C No. 184.

(65) M. J. FrAnco rodrGuez, Los derechos humanos de las mujeres en la jurisprudencia de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, Comisin Nacional de Derechos Humanos, M-xico, 2011, pp. 82.

(66) r. A. orteGA SoriAno, Los derechos de las nias y los nios en el derecho internacional, con especial atencin al Sistema Interamericano de Proteccin de los Derechos Humanos, Comisin Nacional de Derechos Humanos, Mxico, 2011, p. 48.

(67) J. MorAleS SncheS, Derechos de los migrantes en el Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, Comisin Nacional de Derechos Humanos, Mxico, 2011, pp. 68.

(68) Corte IDH, 17 de June 2005, Comunidad indgena Yakye Axa/Paraguay, Serie C No. 25. See the observations of l. cASSetti, Il diritto di vivere con dignit nella giurisprudenza della Corte Interamericana dei diritti umani, in www.federalismi.it, 15 December 2010, especially p. 7.

(69) See ECHR, no. 11810/03, Maurice/ Francia, and no. 1513/03, Draon/ Francia, judge-ment of 2005, concerning the French Law no. 2002-2003 of 4 March 2002, which limit the consequence of the indeminsation in case of medical error in pre-natal diagnosis.


According to the European Court, the notion of property includes: copy-right, patent, goodwill, know-how, credits, especially legal positions of ad-vantage arising from contracts and from relationships of judicial and admin-istrative nature, such as claims in respect of judgments, the rights derived from the administrative concessions, the right to receive social benefits, the rights acquired and after removed by a subsequent legislation (70).

In the regional legal system, the property is considered as a fundamental right, as an essential tool to ensure the other freedoms and rights, impetus to the initiative and economic growth, incentives to saving and also respon-sibility towards future generations (see the case the Italian Constitution ana-lised by Massimo Paradiso) (71).

Other concepts are elaborated in order to implement the rights arising from the regional legal sources. Within the case-law of the Corte IDH, it is possible to observe the elaboration of concepts such as legal personality (72) or personal identity (that means the right to have a name) (73), the concept of child and pa-rental authority and care of the best interest of the child (74), of legal capacity (75),

(70) In generale see M. de donno, Propiedad en la Convencin Europea de los Derechos Hu-manos, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.According the social rights in the case-law of the ECHR see r. cippitAni, v. colcelli, Prestazioni sociali e situazioni giuridiche soggettive, in Foro padano, 2011, p. 135-166; according to the topic of the rights arising from a previous legislation, see R. cippitAni, Limitazioni alla responsabilit medica nella diagnosi prenatale tra norme costituzionali e norme sovranazionali, in Diritto di famiglia e delle persone, 2011, p. 1327-1357.

(71) M. pArAdiSo, Propiedad (Perfiles de derecho supranacional), in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(72) Corte IDH, 17 July l 2005, Comunidad indgena Yakye Axa/ Paraguay, Serie C No. 25, par. 84.

(73) See for example Corte IDH, 1 March 2005, Las Hermanas Serrano Cruz / El Salvador, Serie C No. 120, par. 120).

(74) See Corte IDH, Opinin Consultiva OC-17/2002, 28 August 2002, Condicin ju-rdica y derechos humanos del nio.

(75) According to the Opinion mentioned Los Estados se comprometen a transformar su relacin con la infancia, abandonando la concepcin del nio como incapaz y logrando el respeto de todos sus derechos, as como el reconocimiento de una proteccin adicional. Adems, se enfatiza la proteccin a la familia por ser el lugar por excelencia donde deben efectivizarse en primer lugar los derechos de los nios, las nias y los adolescentes cuyas opiniones deben ser priorizadas para la toma de decisiones familiares.


the substantial and not formal notion of family (76), etc.The elaboration of that complex set of legal concepts produces an in-

teresting phenomenon, which is unexpected from the point of view of the international law.

Instead of (or together with) the reference to a broad notion of uni-versality of the human rights, the regional courts argue that their activity is based on a true legal system: the Court of Justice of the former European Communities recognised the existence of the legal community system from the case-law Van Gend en Loos issued on 1963, at the beginning of the Eu-ropean integration history (77); the European Court of the Human Rights considers itself as constitutional guarantor European public order (78); the CJCA uses the expressions ordenamiento jurdico andino o Derecho andino; el Tribunal Permanente del Mercosur makes reference to a base jurdica de Mer-cosur; la Corte IDH holds that the legal instruments protecting the human rights are to be considered a legal system (79).

This type of legal order is not the traditional system of international relations concluded to accomplish the reciprocal bargain of rights for the mutual benefit of the contracting States (80).

Thus, the regional legal order is autonomous. As stated by ECJ with reference to the former Communities: By contrast with ordinary interna-tional treaties, the EEC treaty has created its own legal system which, on the entry into force of the treaty, became an integral part of the legal systems of the member states and which their courts are bound to apply (81).

(76) The Corte IDH makes reference to the ECHR to identifiy the notion of family, which could not be reduced to family based on marriage (Corte IDH, Opinin Consultiva, Condicin Jurdica y Derechos Humanos del Nio). See A. pAlAzzo, Familia, in M. i. lvArez ledeSMA, r. cippitAni (coord. by), Diccionario analtico de Derechos humanos e integracin jurdica, ref.

(77) European Court of Justice, 5 February 1963, 26-62, Van Gend en Loos / Administratie der Belastingen, in ECR 1963, p. 3.

(78) ECHR 23 March 1995, Loizidou/Turchia, in Riv. int. dir. um., 1995, p. 483. (79) Corte IDH, 16 November del 2009, Gonzlez y otr. (Campo Algodonero) / Estados

Unidos Mexicanos, Serie C No. 205, prr. 62. (80) Corte IDH, Opinin Consultiva OC- 2/82, 24 September 1982, El efecto de las Reser-

vas sobre la entrada en vigencia de la Convencin Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, par. 29. (81) European Court of Justice, 15 July 1964, 6/64, Flaminio Costa c/ ENEL, ECR 1964

p. 1195.


Although with some delay, the legal doctrine has become aware of the existence of a regional legal system. In Europe it is a now an indisputable fact. In Latin America, the scholars are beginning to accept the presence of an American law of the human rights (82), based also on the case-law of the Corte IDH.

The regional legal system of reference for the regional courts has to be open. Indeed los tratados de derechos humanos son instrumentos vivos, cuya interpretacin tiene que acompaar la evolucin de los tiempos y las condiciones de vida actuales (83).

Such an openness leads to take into consideration the interpretations provided by other judges dealing with similar topics (84). The case-law of the Corte IDH, for example, usually uses the jurisprudence of the ECHR (85). The TPR bases its notion of non-discrimination on the case-law of the ECJ (86).

(82) See A. cAvAllo GonzAlo, Surgimiento de un Derecho Americano de los Derechos Humanos, in Cuestiones Constitucionales. Revista Mexicana de Derecho Constitucional, no. 24, January-June 2011, pp. 3-89; see Also M. becerrA, El Control en el Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Hu-manos. Hacia una restructuracin del sistema, in this book.

(83) Corte IDH Opinin Consultiva OC-16/99 1 October 1999, El derecho a la informacin sobre la asistencia consular en el marco de las garantas del debido proceso legal, p. 67 f.; Id., Opinin Consultiva sobre la Interpretacin de la Declaracin Americana de los Derechos y Deberes del Hombre. About the European Convention of Human Rights, see ECHR, 30 June 1993, Sigurur Sigurjnsson/Iceland, in ECR 1993, p. 264; Id., 25 April 1978, Tyrer/United Kingdom; Id. 6 May 1981, European Commission of Human Rights / Germany, in Foro it., 1981, IV, cc. 273 ff.; Id. 18 February 1999, Matthews/ United Kingdom, in Riv. it. dir. pubbl. comunit., 1999, pp. 1089.

(84) Corte IDH, Opinin Consultiva, OC-5/85 of 13 November 1985, La colegiacin obligatoria de periodistas.

(85) Corte IDH Opinin Consultiva, OC-16/99 of 1 October 1999, El derecho a la in-formacin sobre la asistencia consular en el marco de las garantas del debido proceso legal, p. 67, which quotes the case-law of ECHR, especially: Tyrer /United Kingdom (1978), Marckx/ Blgica (1979), Loizidou/Turqua (1995). As M. e. venturA robleS, La Corte Interamericana de Dere-chos Humanos, in XIX Curso Interdisciplinario en Derechos Humanos IIDH del 19 al 28 de June del 2001, p. 9, affirms: El primer Reglamento de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos se bas fundamentalmente en el Reglamento de la Corte Europea de Derechos Humanos, que a su vez haba to-mado como ejemplo el procedimiento de la Corte Internacional de Justicia, el cual es un procedimiento para contenciosos interestatales (http://www.iidh.ed.cr/documentos/herrped/PedagogicasEspe-cializado/21.pdf).

(86) TPR Mercosur, laudo N 1/2005.


The openness of the legal system leads, a fortiori, to make reference to the jurisprudence of the Courts of the same region. As an example, one can consider the Advisory Opinion n. 1/2007 of TPR Mercosur, which holds the mechanism of the prejudicial interpretation of the CJCA, taking into account the need of developing a supranational law for Latin America.

The order thus created could be applied directly to individuals creating subjective rights.

The regional legal system implies problems of coordination with re-spect to the domestic law.

Also in this case, the issue cannot be dealt with only the instruments of international law but by developing specific tools.

In Europe, the ECJ further stated theory monistic according to which the regional law has been integrated with national legal systems.

According to the ECJ the regional legal system is characterised by the principle of precedence. As matter of fact the integration into the laws of each member State of provisions which derive from the community, and more generally the terms and the spirit of the treaty, make it impos-sible for the states, as a corollary, to accord precedence to a unilateral and subsequent measure over a legal system accepted by them on a basis of reciprocity (87).

That this approach was initially rejected by the national constitutional courts, which supported a different model: the dualistic one, based on the two legal orders (the Community and national law) and they had to be considered separate and autonomous (88). At the end of the monistic theory of the Court succeeded and prevailed upon the approach of the national Constitutional Courts (89).

The prevalence of supranational law is affirmed also in Latin America.

(87) European Court of Justice, 15 July 1964, 6/64, Flaminio Costa c/ ENEL, ref. (88) For example see the judgments of the Italian Corte Costituzionale n. 170/1984, n.

113/1985, n. 186/1991 in www.cortecostituzionale.it. See also G. teSAuro, Diritto comuni-tario, Padova, 1995, p. 120; E. picozzA, Diritto amministrativo e diritto comunitario, Torino, 1997, p. 12.

(89) The revirement of the Italian Constitutional Court took place with the judgement Granital/ Amministrazione delle Finanze (n. 170 of 1984), when the Court accepted the model monist.


The TPR states that the Integration Law for its proper notion, nature and purposes should always be prevalent on domestic legal system. Other-wise, the regional integration process would lose meaning (90).

The prevalence is considered as the consequence of the obligation of the States, members of the regional organisation, a respetar los derechos y libertades reconocidos en ella y a garantizar su libre y pleno ejercicio a toda persona que est sujeta a su jurisdiccin (see Article 1.1 CADH).

This is true both for the judgments and the opinions issued by the re-gional courts.

According to Luis Castillo Crdoba La justificacin es la siguiente: las interpretaciones que de la CADH formule la mencionada Corte, se adscri-ben a las normas convencionales directamente estatuidas, de manera que a partir de ese momento, las disposiciones de la CADH se han de entender segn tales interpretaciones; as, los Estados vinculados a la CADH, se hallan vinculados tambin a las interpretaciones de sus disposiciones. Y, adicionalmente, la vinculacin se extiende tambin a la propia Corte IDH; pues, salvo un justificado cambio jurisprudencial, una elemental exigencia de razonabilidad y seguridad jurdica, vincula a la Corte IDH a sus propias interpretaciones iusfundamentales

This obligation is strengthened by the national constitutions. However, for example, even before the recent amendment of the Mexican Constitu-tion, the Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nacin and the other judges used to implement the Convencin Americana and the case-law of Corte Inter-americana (91) in their judgement.

Also the national judges are required by the regional courts to imple-ment the transnational laws and to comply with the interpretative solutions elaborated at regional level.

As the legal doctrine of Latin America affirms, national judges have to carry out the so called control of conventionality (92), that is to say that they have to verify the compliance of the domestic law with the regional

(90) TPR Mercosur, Opinin Consultiva, n. 1/2007, of 3 April 2007. (91) J.l. cAbAllero ochoA, Retratos hablados. Los derechos fundamentales y su interpretacin en

sede constitucional e internacional, en El Juez Constitucional en el Siglo XXI, ref., Tomo I, p. 609 ff. (92) See e. rey cAntor, Control de convencionalidad de las leyes y derechos humanos, Mxico,

2008.


normative, up to the disapplication of the internal norms in contrast with the transnational sources and its interpretation provided by the regional courts.

Such a theory was originated by the jurisprudence of the Corte IDH in the case Almonacid Arellano and others vs. Chile of 2006, where an obliga-tion for the judges of the Member States to control that the national dispo-sitions comply with the disposition of the CADH, so as interpreted by the regional case-law, was established.

This approach has been developing in at least 20 trials, becoming an im-portant instrument to interpret both the regional and domestic law.

According to the Corte IDH, the control of conventionality should be carried out ex officio (93) by the judges, but also by all the officers of the Mem-ber States (see the case-law Furlan y familiares vs. Argentina of 2012).

In Europe as well as in Latin America, such role of the judges in the con-struction of the regional system has been accepted by the national courts, in particular those which carry out the function of constitutional tribunals.

In Mexico, for example, the control of conventionality by national judges has been affirmed by the Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nacin on 14th July 2011 in the jurisprudence Rosendo Radilla Pacheco vs. Mexico.

According to the Suprema Corte the control of conventionality has to be carried out in three phases: the conform in

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